The Normans (
Norman
Norman or Normans may refer to:
Ethnic and cultural identity
* The Normans
The Normans (Norman language, Norman: ''Normaunds''; french: Normands; la, Nortmanni/Normanni) were inhabitants of the early medieval Duchy of Normandy, descended from ...
: ''Normaunds''; french: Normands; la, Nortmanni/Normanni) were a
population
Population typically refers the number of people in a single area whether it be a city or town, region, country, or the world. Governments typically quantify the size of the resident population within their jurisdiction by a process called a ...

arising in the medieval
Duchy of Normandy
The Duchy of Normandy grew out of the 911 Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte
A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually entered into by sovereign states and international organizati ...

from the intermingling between
Norse
Norse is demonym for Norsemen, a medieval North Germanic ethnolinguistic group ancestral to modern Scandinavians, defined as speakers of Old Norse from about the 9th to the 13th centuries.
Norse may also refer to:
Culture and religion
* Norse m ...
Viking
Vikings—"pirate", non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people primarily from Scandinavia
Scandinavia; : ''Skadesi-suolu''/''Skađsuâl''. ( ) is a in , with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties.
In ...

settlers and indigenous
West Franks and
Gallo-Romans
The term "Gallo-Roman" describes the Romanized
Romanization or romanisation, in linguistics
Linguistics is the science, scientific study of language. It encompasses the analysis of every aspect of language, as well as the methods for st ...
. The term is also used to denote emigrants from the duchy who conquered other territories such as
England
England is a that is part of the . It shares land borders with to its west and to its north. The lies northwest of England and the to the southwest. England is separated from by the to the east and the to the south. The country cover ...

and
Sicily
Sicily ( it, Sicilia ; scn, Sicilia ) is the in the and one of the 20 of . It is one of the five and is officially referred to as ''Regione Siciliana''. The region has 5 million inhabitants. Its is .
Sicily is in the central Mediterranean ...

. The Norse settlements in West Francia followed a series of raids on the French northern coast mainly from
Denmark
Denmark ( da, Danmark, ) is a Nordic countries, Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the most populous and politically central Constituent state, constituent of the Danish Realm, Kingdom of Denmark, da, Kongeriget Danmark, a constitutio ...

, although some also sailed from
Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway,Names in the official and recognised languages: : ''Norge'' ; : '; Official names in minority languages: : ''Norga''; ''Vuodna''; : ''Nöörje''; fkv, Norja is a in , the territory of which compr ...

and
Sweden
Sweden ( sv, Sverige ), officially the Kingdom of Sweden ( sv, links=no, Konungariket Sverige ), is a Nordic countries, Nordic country in Northern Europe.The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's fo ...

. Said settlements were finally legitimized when
Rollo
Rollo ( nrf, Rou, ''Rollo(u)n''; non, Hrólfr; french: Rollon; – ) was a Viking
Vikings—"pirate", non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people primarily from Scandinavia
Scandinavia; Sami languages, ...

, a Scandinavian viking leader, agreed to swear
fealty
An oath
Traditionally an oath (from Anglo-Saxon
The Anglo-Saxons were a cultural group
Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior
Social behavior is behavior
Behavior (American English) or behaviour (B ...
to
following the
siege of Chartres in 911 AD.
The intermingling in Normandy produced an
ethnic
An ethnic group or ethnicity is a grouping of people who identity (social science), identify with each other on the basis of shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Those attributes can include common sets of traditions, ancest ...
and cultural "Norman" identity in the first half of the 10th century, an identity which continued to evolve over the centuries.
The
Norman dynasty
The House of Normandy ( Norman French
Norman or Norman French (', french: Normand, Guernésiais
Guernésiais, also known as ''Dgèrnésiais'', Guernsey French, and Guernsey Norman French, is the variety of the Norman language spoken in Guer ...
had a major political, cultural and military impact on
medieval Europe
In the history of Europe
The history of Europe concerns itself with the discovery and collection, the study, organization and presentation and the interpretation of past events and affairs of the people of Europe since the beginning of ...
and the
Near East
The Near East ( ar, الشرق الأدنى, al-Sharq al-'Adnā, he, המזרח הקרוב, arc, ܕܢܚܐ ܩܪܒ, fa, خاور نزدیک, Xāvar-e nazdik, tr, Yakın Doğu) is a geographical term which roughly encompasses a transcontinental ...
.
The Normans were historically famed for their martial spirit and eventually for their
Catholic
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptised
Baptism (from the Greek language, Greek noun βάπτισμα ''báptisma'') is a Christians, Christian r ...
piety
Piety is a virtue
Virtue ( la, virtus
''Virtus'' () was a specific virtue in Ancient Rome. It carries connotations of valor, manliness, excellence, courage, character, and worth, perceived as masculine strengths (from Latin ''vir'', "man" ...
, becoming exponents of the Catholic orthodoxy of the Romance community.
The original Norse settlers adopted the
Gallo-Romance language of the Frankish land they settled, with their
Old Norman dialect becoming known as
Norman
Norman or Normans may refer to:
Ethnic and cultural identity
* The Normans
The Normans (Norman language, Norman: ''Normaunds''; french: Normands; la, Nortmanni/Normanni) were inhabitants of the early medieval Duchy of Normandy, descended from ...
, Normaund or
Norman French
Norman or Norman French (', french: Normand, Guernésiais: ''Normand'', Jèrriais: ''Nouormand'') is, depending on classification, either a French dialect or a Romance language which can be classified as one of the Langues d'oïl, Oïl languages ...
, an important literary language which is still spoken today in parts of mainland Normandy (
Cotentinais
Cotentinais is the dialect
The term dialect (from Latin , , from the Ancient Greek word , , "discourse", from , , "through" and , , "I speak") is used in two distinct ways to refer to two different types of Linguistics, linguistic phenomena:
* ...
and
CauchoisCauchois could refer to:
* Yvette Cauchois, 1908–1999, French physicist
* Cauchois dialect, a Norman dialect
{{dab ...
dialects) and the nearby
Channel Islands
The Channel Islands ( nrf, Îles d'la Manche; french: îles Anglo-Normandes or ''îles de la Manche'') are an archipelago in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy. They include two Crown Dependencies: the Jersey, Bailiwick of ...

(
Jèrriais
(french: Jersiais, also known as the Jersey Language, Jersey French and Jersey Norman French in English) is a Romance languages, Romance language and the traditional language of the Jersey people. It is a form of the Norman language spoken in ...
and
Guernésiais
Guernésiais, also known as ''Dgèrnésiais'', Guernsey French, and Guernsey Norman French, is the variety of the spoken in . It is sometimes known on the island simply as "". As one of the , it has its roots in , but has had strong influence f ...
). The
Duchy of Normandy
The Duchy of Normandy grew out of the 911 Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte
A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually entered into by sovereign states and international organizati ...

, which arose from the
Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte
A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually entered into by sovereign states and international organizations, but can sometimes include individuals, business entities, and other L ...
, was a great
fief
A fief (; la, feudum) was the central element of feudalism
Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was the combination of the legal, economic, military, and cultural customs that flourished in Medieval Europe
In the histor ...
of medieval France. The Norman dukes exercised independent control of their holdings in Normandy, while at the same time being vassals owing fealty to the King of France, and under
Richard I of Normandy
Richard I (28 August 932 – 20 November 996), also known as Richard the Fearless (French: ''Richard Sans-Peur''; Old Norse
Old Norse, Old Nordic, or Old Scandinavian was a North Germanic languages, North Germanic language that was spoken ...

(byname "Richard sans Peur" meaning "Richard the Fearless") the Duchy was forged into a cohesive and formidable
principality
A principality (or sometimes princedom) can either be a monarchical
A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, is head of state for life or until abdication. The legitimacy (political)#monarchy, political le ...
in
feudal
Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was the combination of the legal, economic, military, and cultural customs that flourished in Medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring society ...
tenure.
By the end of his reign in 996, the descendants of the Norse settlers "had become not only Christians but in all essentials Frenchmen. They had adopted the French language, French legal ideas, and French social customs, and had practically merged with the Frankish or Gallic population among whom they lived". Between 1066 and 1204, as a result of the
Norman conquest of England
The Norman Conquest (or the Conquest) was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England
England is a that is part of the . It shares land borders with to its west and to its north. The lies northwest of England and the to ...
, most of the
kings of England
This list of kings and queens of the Kingdom of England
The Kingdom of England was a sovereign state on the island of Great Britain from 12 July 927, when it emerged from various History of Anglo-Saxon England, Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, unti ...
were also
dukes of Normandy
In the Middle Ages
In the history of Europe
The history of Europe concerns itself with the discovery and collection, the study, organization and presentation and the interpretation of past events and affairs of the people of Europe si ...
. In 1204,
Philip II of France
Philip II (21 August 1165 – 14 July 1223), byname Philip Augustus (french: Philippe Auguste), was King of France from 1180 to 1223. His predecessors had been known as kings of the Franks, but from 1190 onward, Philip became the first French mo ...

seized mainland Normandy by force of arms, having earlier declared the
Duchy of Normandy
The Duchy of Normandy grew out of the 911 Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte
A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually entered into by sovereign states and international organizati ...

to be forfeit to him. It remained disputed territory until the
Treaty of Paris of 1259, when the English sovereign ceded his claim to the Duchy, except for the
Channel Islands
The Channel Islands ( nrf, Îles d'la Manche; french: îles Anglo-Normandes or ''îles de la Manche'') are an archipelago in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy. They include two Crown Dependencies: the Jersey, Bailiwick of ...

. In the present day, the Channel Islands (the
Bailiwick of Guernsey
The Bailiwick of Guernsey (french: Bailliage de Guernesey; Guernésiais
Guernésiais, also known as ''Dgèrnésiais'', Guernsey French, and Guernsey Norman French, is the variety of the Norman language spoken in Guernsey. It is sometimes known ...

and the
Bailiwick of Jersey
A bailiwick () is usually the area of jurisdiction of a bailiff, and once also applied to territories in which a privately appointed bailiff exercised the sheriff's functions under a royal or imperial writ.
In English language, English the origina ...

) are considered to be officially the last remnants of the Duchy of Normandy, and are not part of the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain,Usage is mixed. The Guardian' and Telegraph' use Britain as a synonym for the United Kingdom. Some prefer to use Britain as shorth ...

but are instead self-governing
Crown Dependencies#REDIRECT Crown Dependencies
The Crown dependencies (french: Dépendances de la Couronne; gv, Croghaneyn-crooin) are three island territories off the coast of Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off t ...

.
[Marr, J., ''The History of Guernsey – the Bailiwick's story'', Guernsey Press (2001).]
The Normans are noted both for their culture, such as their unique
Romanesque architecture
Romanesque architecture is an architectural style
An architectural style is a set of characteristics and features that make a building or other structure notable or historically identifiable. It is a sub-class of style in the visual arts gen ...
and musical traditions, and for their significant military accomplishments and innovations. Norman adventurers played a role in founding the
Kingdom of Sicily
Kingdom may refer to:
Monarchy
* A type of monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch
A monarch is a head of stateWebster's II New College DictionarMonarch Houghton Mifflin. Boston. 2001. p. 707. L ...

under
Roger II
Roger II (22 December 1095 – 26 February 1154) was King of Sicily
(masculine) it, Siciliana (feminine)
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_ ...

after briefly
conquering southern Italy and
Malta
Malta ( , , ), officially known as the Republic of Malta ( mt, Repubblika ta' Malta ) and formerly Melita, is a Southern European island country consisting of an archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea. It lies south of Italy, east of Tunisi ...

from the
Saracen
Saracens () were primarily , but also , or other Muslims as referred to by Christian writers in Europe during the . The term's meaning evolved during its history. In the early centuries of the , Greek and Latin writings used the term to refer to ...
s and
Byzantines, and an expedition on behalf of their
duke
Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a , or of a member of , or . As rulers, dukes are ranked below s, s, s, s, and sovereign s. As royalty or nobility, they are ranked below princes of nobility and grand dukes. The title comes ...
,
William the Conqueror
William I (c. 1028Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 33 – 9 September 1087), usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman
Norman or Normans may refer to:
Ethnic and cultural identi ...

, led to the
Norman conquest of England
The Norman Conquest (or the Conquest) was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England
England is a that is part of the . It shares land borders with to its west and to its north. The lies northwest of England and the to ...
at the historic
Battle of Hastings
The Battle of Hastings or nrf, Batâle dé Hastings was fought on 14 October 1066 between the Norman-French army of William, the Duke of Normandy, and an English army under the Anglo-Saxon
The Anglo-Saxons were a cultural group
Cu ...

in 1066. Norman and Anglo-Norman forces contributed to the Iberian
Reconquista
The ' (Portuguese
Portuguese may refer to:
* anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal
** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods
** Portuguese language, a Romance language
*** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portug ...

from the early eleventh to the mid-thirteenth centuries.
Norman cultural and military influence spread from these new European centres to the
Crusader states
The Crusader States, also known as Outremer, were four Roman Catholic realms in the Middle East that lasted from 1098 to 1291. These were created by the leaders of the through and political intrigue. The four states were the (10981150) ...

of the Near East, where their prince
founded the
Principality of Antioch
The Principality of Antioch was one of the crusader states
The Crusader states were feudal polities created by the Latin Catholic leaders of the First Crusade
The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wa ...
in the
Levant
The Levant () is an term referring to a large area in the region of . In its narrowest sense, it is equivalent to the , which included present-day , , , , and most of southwest of the middle . In its widest historical sense, the Levant ...

, to
Scotland
Scotland ( sco, Scotland, gd, Alba
Alba (Scottish Gaelic
Scottish Gaelic ( gd, Gàidhlig or Scots Gaelic, sometimes referred to simply as Gaelic) is a Goidelic language (in the Celtic languages, Celtic branch of the Indo-European ...

and
Wales
Wales ( cy, Cymru ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by England to the Wales–England border, east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and the Bristol Channel to the south. It ...

in
Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the List of European islands by area, largest European island, and the List of i ...

, to
Ireland
Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Great Britain and Ireland), North Channel, the Irish Sea ...

, and to the coasts of
north Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in th ...
and the
Canary Islands
The Canary Islands (; es, Islas Canarias, ), also known informally as ''the Canaries'', is a Spanish archipelago
An archipelago ( ), sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster or collection of island
...
. The legacy of the Normans persists today through the
of France, England, Spain, Quebec and Sicily, and also through the various cultural, judicial, and political arrangements they introduced in their conquered territories.
Etymology
The English name "Normans" comes from the
French words ''Normans''/''Normanz'', plural of ''Normant'', modern French ''normand'', which is itself borrowed from
Old Low Franconian
In linguistics, Old Dutch or Old Low Franconian is the set of Franconian dialects (i.e. dialects that evolved from Frankish) spoken in the Low Countries
The term Low Countries, also known as the Low Lands ( nl, de Lage Landen, french: les Pa ...
''Nortmann'' "Northman"
[.] or directly from
Old Norse
Old Norse, Old Nordic, or Old Scandinavian is a stage of development of North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia
Scandinavia; : ''Skades ...
''Norðmaðr'',
Latinized
Latinisation or Latinization can refer to:
* Latinisation of names, the practice of rendering a non-Latin name in a Latin style
* Latinisation in the Soviet Union, the campaign in the USSR during the 1920s and 1930s to replace traditional writing sy ...
variously as ''Nortmannus'', ''Normannus'', or ''Nordmannus'' (recorded in
Medieval Latin
Medieval Latin was the form of Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language
A classical language is a language
A language is a structured system of communication
Communication (from Latin ''communicare'', meaning "to share ...
, 9th century) to mean "Norseman,
Viking
Vikings—"pirate", non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people primarily from Scandinavia
Scandinavia; : ''Skadesi-suolu''/''Skađsuâl''. ( ) is a in , with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties.
In ...

".
The 11th century
Benedictine monk
The Benedictines, officially the Order of Saint Benedict ( la, Ordo Sancti Benedicti, abbreviated as OSB), are a Christian monasticism, monastic Religious order (Catholic), religious order of the Catholic Church following the Rule of Saint Ben ...
and
historian
A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the stu ...
,
Goffredo MalaterraGaufredo (or Geoffrey, or Goffredo) Malaterra ( la, Gaufridus Malaterra) was an eleventh-century Benedictine monk and historian, possibly of Normans, Norman origin. He travelled to the southern Italian peninsula, passing some time in Apulia before en ...
, characterised the Normans thus:
Settling of Normandy

In the course of the
10th century
The 10th century was the period from 901 (Roman numerals, CMI) through AD 1000, 1000 (Roman numerals, M) in accordance with the Julian calendar, and the last century of the 1st millennium.
In China the Song dynasty was established. The Muslim Wo ...
, the initially destructive incursions of
Norse
Norse is demonym for Norsemen, a medieval North Germanic ethnolinguistic group ancestral to modern Scandinavians, defined as speakers of Old Norse from about the 9th to the 13th centuries.
Norse may also refer to:
Culture and religion
* Norse m ...
war bands going upstream into the rivers of
France
France (), officially the French Republic (french: link=no, République française), is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Western Europe and Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Ame ...

penetrated further into interior
Europe
Europe is a continent
A continent is any of several large landmasses. Generally identified by convention (norm), convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven geographical regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered ...

, and evolved into more permanent encampments that included local French women and personal property.
From 885 to 886,
Odo of Paris (Eudes de Paris) succeeded in defending Paris against Viking raiders (one of the leaders was
Sigfred
Sigfred was an eighth century Danish king who is known to have reigned from before 777 to after 798. Fragments of his reign can be traced via Frankish sources.
Assistance to Widukind
King Sigfred is first mentioned in 777 when the Saxons, Sa ...
) with his fighting skills, fortification of Paris and tactical shrewdness. In 911,
Robert I of France
Robert I (c. 866 – 15 June 923), was the elected King of West Francia
In medieval history, West Francia (Medieval Latin: ) or the Kingdom of the West Franks () refers to the western part of the Francia, Frankish Empire established by Charl ...
, brother of Odo, again defeated another band of Viking warriors in Chartres with his well-trained horsemen. This victory paved the way for
Rollo
Rollo ( nrf, Rou, ''Rollo(u)n''; non, Hrólfr; french: Rollon; – ) was a Viking
Vikings—"pirate", non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people primarily from Scandinavia
Scandinavia; Sami languages, ...

's baptism and settlement in
Normandy
Normandy (; french: link=no, Normandie ; nrf, Normaundie; from Old French
Old French (, , ; Modern French
French ( or ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, ...

. The
Duchy of Normandy
The Duchy of Normandy grew out of the 911 Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte
A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually entered into by sovereign states and international organizati ...

, which began in 911 as a
fiefdom
A fief (; la, feudum) was the central element of feudalism
Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was the combination of the legal, economic, military, and cultural customs that flourished in Medieval Europe
In the histor ...
, was established by the
treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte
A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually entered into by sovereign states and international organizations, but can sometimes include individuals, business entities, and other L ...
between
(879–929, ruled 893–929) of
West Francia
In medieval history, West Francia (Medieval Latin: ) or the Kingdom of the West Franks () refers to the western part of the Francia, Frankish Empire established by Charlemagne. It represents the earliest stage of the Kingdom of France, lasting fro ...
and the famed
Viking
Vikings—"pirate", non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people primarily from Scandinavia
Scandinavia; : ''Skadesi-suolu''/''Skađsuâl''. ( ) is a in , with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties.
In ...

ruler
Rollo
Rollo ( nrf, Rou, ''Rollo(u)n''; non, Hrólfr; french: Rollon; – ) was a Viking
Vikings—"pirate", non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people primarily from Scandinavia
Scandinavia; Sami languages, ...

also known as Gaange Rolf (c. 846-c. 929), from
Scandinavia
Scandinavia; : ''Skadesi-suolu''/''Skađsuâl''. ( ) is a in , with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties.
In English usage, ''Scandinavia'' can refer to , , and , sometimes more narrowly to the , or more broadly to include , th ...

, and was situated in the former
Frankish
Frankish may refer to:
* Franks
The Franks ( la, Franci or ) were a group of Germanic peoples
The historical Germanic peoples (from lat, Germani) are a category of ancient northern European tribes, first mentioned by Graeco-Roman author ...

kingdom of
Neustria
Neustria was the western part of the Francia, Kingdom of the Franks.
Neustria included the land between the Loire and the Silva Carbonaria, approximately the north of present-day France, with Paris, Orléans, Tours, Soissons as its main cities. ...
.
[Neveux, p. 5] The treaty offered Rollo and his men the
coastal lands along the
English Channel
The English Channel,, "The Sleeve"; nrf, la Maunche, "The Sleeve" (Cotentinais
Cotentinais is the dialect
The term dialect (from Latin , , from the Ancient Greek word , , "discourse", from , , "through" and , , "I speak") is used in two ...

between the river
Epte
The Epte is a river
A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching anoth ...
and the
in exchange for their protection against further Viking incursions.
As well as promising to protect the area of Rouen from Viking invasion, Rollo swore not to invade further Frankish lands himself, accepted baptism and conversion to
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic, Monotheism, monotheistic religion based on the Life of Jesus in the New Testament, life and Teachings of Jesus, teachings of Jesus, Jesus of Nazareth. It is the Major religious groups, world's ...

and swore fealty to King Charles III. Robert I of France stood as godfather during Rollo's baptism. He became the first Duke of Normandy and Count of Rouen. The area corresponded to the northern part of present-day
Upper Normandy
Upper Normandy (french: Haute-Normandie, ; nrf, Ĥâote-Normaundie) is a former regions of France, administrative region of France. On 1 January 2016, Upper and Lower Normandy merged becoming one region called Normandy (administrative region), No ...
down to the river
Seine
)
, mouth_location = Le Havre
Le Havre (, ; nrf, Lé Hâvre) is an urban French commune
A commune is an intentional community of people sharing living spaces, interests, values, beliefs, and often property
Property (''lati ...

, but the Duchy would eventually extend west beyond the Seine.
The territory was roughly equivalent to the old province of
Rouen
Rouen (, ; or ) is a city on the River Seine in northern France. It is the prefecture of the Regions of France, region of Normandy (administrative region), Normandy and the Departments of France, department of Seine-Maritime. Formerly one of ...

, and reproduced the old
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Rōmānum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Republican
Republican can refer to:
Political ideology
* An advocate of a republic, a type of governme ...

's administrative structure of ''Gallia Lugdunensis II'' (part of the former ''
Gallia Lugdunensis
Gallia Lugdunensis (French
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
France (), officially the French Republic (french: link=no, République française), is a country primarily locat ...
'' in
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe
Western Europe is the western region of Europe
Europe is a continent
A continent is any of several large landmasses. Generally identified by convention (norm), convention rat ...

).

Before Rollo's arrival, Normandy's populations did not differ from
Picardy
Picardy (; Picard and french: Picardie, , ) is a historical territory and a former administrative region
Administration may refer to:
Management of organizations
* Management
Management (or managing) is the administration of an organiz ...

or the
Île-de-France
The Île-de-France (, ; literally "Isle of France") is the most populous of the eighteen regions of France
France
France (), officially the French Republic (french: link=no, République française), is a country primarily located in ...

, which were considered "Frankish". Earlier Viking settlers had begun arriving in the 880s, but were divided between colonies in the east (
Roumois
The Roumois () is a region in the northwestern part of the Eure
Eure () is a department in the north of France
France (), officially the French Republic (french: link=no, République française), is a country primarily located in Western ...

and
Pays de Caux
The Pays de Caux (, , literally ''Lands of Caux'') is an area in Normandy
Normandy (; french: link=no, Normandie ; nrf, Normaundie; from Old French
Old French (, , ; Modern French
French ( or ) is a Romance language of the Indo- ...
) around the low Seine valley and in the west in the
Cotentin Peninsula
The Cotentin Peninsula (, ; nrf, Cotentîn ), also known as the Cherbourg Peninsula, is a peninsula in Normandy
Normandy (; french: link=no, Normandie ; nrf, Normaundie; from Old French , plural of ''Normant'', originally from the word for "n ...

, and were separated by traditional ''
pagii'', where the population remained about the same with almost no foreign settlers. Rollo's contingents from Scandinavia who raided and ultimately settled Normandy and parts of the European Atlantic coast included
Danes
Danes ( da, danskere, ) are a North Germanic
The North Germanic languages make up one of the three branches of the Germanic languages—a sub-family of the Indo-European languages—along with the West Germanic languages and the extinct East ...
,
Norwegians
Norwegians ( no, nordmenn) are a North Germanic
The North Germanic languages make up one of the three branches of the Germanic languages—a sub-family of the Indo-European languages—along with the West Germanic languages and the extinct ...
,
Norse–Gaels
The Norse–Gaels also know as Hiberno-Scandinavian ( sga, Gall-Goídil; Irish
Irish most commonly refers to:
* Someone or something of, from, or related to:
** Ireland, an island situated off the north-western coast of continental Europe
** Nor ...
,
, possibly
Swedes
Swedes ( sv, svenskar) are a North Germanic
The North Germanic languages make up one of the three branches of the Germanic languages
The Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-European
The Indo-European languages are a lang ...
, and Anglo-Danes from the English
Danelaw
The Danelaw (, also known as the Danelagh; ang, Dena lagu; da, Danelagen) was the part of England
England is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and ...
territory which earlier came under Norse control in the late 9th century.
The descendants of Vikings replaced the
Norse religion
Old Norse Religion, also known as Norse Paganism, is the most common name for a branch of Germanic religion which developed during the Proto-Norse period, when the North Germanic peoples
North Germanic peoples, commonly called Scandinavians ...
and
Old Norse
Old Norse, Old Nordic, or Old Scandinavian is a stage of development of North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia
Scandinavia; : ''Skades ...
language with
Catholicism
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptised
Baptism (from the Greek language, Greek noun βάπτισμα ''báptisma'') is a Christians, Christian ri ...
(
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic, Monotheism, monotheistic religion based on the Life of Jesus in the New Testament, life and Teachings of Jesus, teachings of Jesus, Jesus of Nazareth. It is the Major religious groups, world's ...

) and the
Langue d'oil of the local people, descending from the
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language
A classical language is a language
A language is a structured system of communication
Communication (from Latin ''communicare'', meaning "to share" or "to be in relation with") is "an appa ...
of the
Romans
Roman or Romans usually refers to:
*Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, ...

. The
Norman language
Norman or Norman French (', french: Normand, Guernésiais
Guernésiais, also known as ''Dgèrnésiais'', Guernsey French, and Guernsey Norman French, is the variety of the Norman language spoken in Guernsey. It is sometimes known on the island ...
(Norman French) was forged by the adoption of the indigenous ''
langue d'oïl
Langue is a municipality
A municipality is usually a single administrative division having Municipal corporation, corporate status and powers of self-government or jurisdiction as granted by national and regional laws to which it is subordin ...
'' branch of
Romance
Romance (from Vulgar Latin , "in the Roman language", i.e., "Latin") may refer to:
Common meanings
* Romance (love)
Romance or Romantic love is an emotional feeling of love for, or a strong attraction towards another person, and the Court ...

by a Norse-speaking ruling class, and it developed into the
French regional languages that survive today.
The Normans thereafter adopted the growing
feudal
Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was the combination of the legal, economic, military, and cultural customs that flourished in Medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring society ...
doctrines of the rest of France, and worked them into a functional hierarchical system in both
Normandy
Normandy (; french: link=no, Normandie ; nrf, Normaundie; from Old French
Old French (, , ; Modern French
French ( or ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, ...

and in
Norman dominated England.
The new Norman rulers were culturally and ethnically distinct from the old
French aristocracy, most of whom traced their lineage to the
Franks
The Franks ( la, Franci or ) were a group of whose name was first mentioned in 3rd-century Roman sources, and associated with tribes between the and the , on the edge of the . Later the term was associated with Germanic dynasties within the ...

of the
Carolingian dynasty
The Carolingian dynasty (known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolingus, Carolings, Karolinger or Karlings) was a Frankish
Frankish may refer to:
* Franks
The Franks ( la, Franci or ) were a group of Germanic peoples
The historic ...
from the days of
Charlemagne
Charlemagne ( , ) or Charles the Great ( la, Carolus Magnus; 2 April 748 – 28 January 814) was King of the Franks
The Franks—Germanic-speaking peoples that invaded the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century—were first led by i ...

in the
9th century. Most Norman knights remained poor and land-hungry, and by the time of the expedition and invasion of England in 1066, Normandy had been exporting fighting horsemen for more than a generation. Many Normans of
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic ( it, Repubblica Italiana, links=no ), is a country consisting of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula delimited by the Alps and List of islands of Italy, several islands surrounding it, whose ...

, France and England eventually served as avid
Crusaders
The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The term refers especially to the Eastern Mediterranean campaigns in the period between 1095 and 1271 that h ...

soldiers under the
Italo-Norman
The Italo-Normans ( it, Italo-Normanni), or Siculo-Normans (''Siculo-Normanni'') when referring to Sicily
Sicily ( it, Sicilia ; scn, Sicilia ) is the in the and one of the 20 of . It is one of the five and is officially referred to a ...
prince
Bohemund I of Antioch
Bohemond I (3 March 1111) was the Prince of Taranto from 1089 to 1111 and the Prince of Antioch from 1098 to 1111. He was a leader of the First Crusade, which was governed by a committee of nobility, nobles.Thomas Asbridge, ''The First Crusade, A ...
and the
Anglo-NormanAnglo-Norman may refer to:
*Anglo-Normans
The Anglo-Normans ( nrf, Anglo-Normaunds, ang, Engel-Norðmandisca) were the medieval ruling class in England, composed mainly of a combination of ethnic Anglo-Saxons, Normans, Bretons, Flemish people, F ...
king
Richard the Lion-Heart, one of the more famous and illustrious Kings of England.
Conquests and military offensives
Italy

Opportunistic bands of Normans successfully established a foothold in southern Italy. Probably as the result of returning pilgrims' stories, the Normans entered southern Italy as warriors in 1017 at the latest. In 999, according to Amatus of Montecassino, Norman pilgrims returning from Jerusalem called in at the port of Salerno when a
Saracen
Saracens () were primarily , but also , or other Muslims as referred to by Christian writers in Europe during the . The term's meaning evolved during its history. In the early centuries of the , Greek and Latin writings used the term to refer to ...
attack occurred. The Normans fought so valiantly that Prince Guaimar III of Salerno, Guaimar III begged them to stay, but they refused and instead offered to tell others back home of the Prince's request. William of Apulia tells that, in 1016, Norman pilgrims to the shrine of the Michael (archangel), Archangel Michael at Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo, Monte Gargano were met by Melus of Bari, a Lombards, Lombard nobleman and rebel, who persuaded them to return with more warriors to help throw off the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine rule, which they did.
The two most prominent Norman families to arrive in the Mediterranean were descendants of Tancred of Hauteville and the Drengot family.
A group of Normans with at least five brothers from the Drengot family fought the Byzantine Empire, Byzantines in Apulia under the command of Melus of Bari, Melo di Bari. Between 1016 and 1024, in a fragmented political context, the was founded by another group of Norman knights headed by Gilbert Buatère and hired by Melo di Bari. Defeated at Cannae, Melo di Bari escaped to Bamberg, Germany, where he died in 1022. The County, which replaced the pre-existing chamberlainship, is considered to be the first political body established by the Normans in the south of Italy.
Then Rainulf Drengot, from the same family, received the county of Aversa from Duke Sergius IV of Naples in 1030.
The Hauteville family achieved princely rank by proclaiming Prince Guaimar IV of Salerno "Duke of Apulia and Calabria". He promptly awarded their elected leader, William Iron Arm, with the title of count in his capital of Melfi. The Drengot family thereafter attained the principality of Capua, and Emperor Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor, Henry III legally ennobled the Hauteville leader, Drogo of Hauteville, Drogo, as "''dux et magister Italiae comesque Normannorum totius Apuliae et Calabriae''" ("''Duke and Master of Italy and Count of the Normans of all Apulia and Calabria''") in 1047.
From these bases, the Normans eventually captured
Sicily
Sicily ( it, Sicilia ; scn, Sicilia ) is the in the and one of the 20 of . It is one of the five and is officially referred to as ''Regione Siciliana''. The region has 5 million inhabitants. Its is .
Sicily is in the central Mediterranean ...

and
Malta
Malta ( , , ), officially known as the Republic of Malta ( mt, Repubblika ta' Malta ) and formerly Melita, is a Southern European island country consisting of an archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea. It lies south of Italy, east of Tunisi ...

from the Saracens, under the leadership of the famous Robert Guiscard, a Hauteville, and his younger brother Roger I of Sicily, Roger the Great Count. Roger's son, Roger II of Sicily, was crowned king in 1130 (exactly one century after Rainulf was "crowned" count) by Antipope Anacletus II. The
Kingdom of Sicily
Kingdom may refer to:
Monarchy
* A type of monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch
A monarch is a head of stateWebster's II New College DictionarMonarch Houghton Mifflin. Boston. 2001. p. 707. L ...

lasted until 1194, when it was transferred to the House of Hohenstaufen through marriage. The Normans left their legacy in many castles, such as William Iron Arm's citadel at Squillace, and cathedrals, such as Roger II's Cappella Palatina at Palermo, which dot the landscape and give a distinct architectural flavor to accompany its unique history.
Institutionally, the Normans combined the administrative machinery of the Byzantines, Arabs, and Lombards with their own conceptions of feudal law and order to forge a unique government. Under this state, there was great religious freedom, and alongside the Norman nobles existed a meritocratic bureaucracy of Jews, Muslims and Christians, both
Catholic
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptised
Baptism (from the Greek language, Greek noun βάπτισμα ''báptisma'') is a Christians, Christian r ...
and Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Orthodox. The Kingdom of Sicily thus became characterized by Norman, Byzantine, Greek, Arab, Lombard and "native" Sicilian populations living in harmony, and its List of monarchs of Sicily#Kings of Sicily, Norman rulers fostered plans of establishing an empire that would have encompassed Fatimid Egypt as well as the crusader states in the
Levant
The Levant () is an term referring to a large area in the region of . In its narrowest sense, it is equivalent to the , which included present-day , , , , and most of southwest of the middle . In its widest historical sense, the Levant ...

. One of the great geographical treatises of the Middle Ages, the "''Tabula Rogeriana''", was written by the Al-Andalus, Andalusian al-Idrisi for King Roger II of Sicily, and entitled "''Kitab Rudjdjar''" ("''The Book of Roger''").
[Lewis, p.148]
The Iberian Peninsula
The Normans began appearing in the military confrontations between Christians and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula since the early eleventh century. The first Norman who appears in the narrative sources was Roger I of Tosny who according to Ademar of Chabannes and the later Chronicle of St Pierre le Vif went to aid the Barcelonese in a series of raids against the Andalusi Muslims circa 1018. Later in the eleventh century, other Norman adventurers such as Robert Crispin and Walter Giffard participated in the probably papal organised siege of Barbastro of 1064. Even after the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the Normans continued to participate in ventures in the peninsula. After the Frankish conquest of the Holy Land during the First Crusade, the Normans began to be encouraged to participate in ventures of conquest in the northeast of the peninsula. The most significant example of this was the incursion of Rotrou II of Perche and Robert Burdet in the 1120s in the Ebro frontier. By 1129 Robert Burdet had been granted a semi-independent principality in the city of Tarragona by the then Archbishop of this see, Oleguer Bonestruga. Several others of Rotrou's Norman followers were rewarded with lands in the Ebro valley by King Alfonso I of Aragon for their services.
With the rising popularity of the sea route to the Holy Land, Norman and Anglo-Norman crusaders also started to be encouraged locally by Iberian prelates to participate in the Portuguese incursions into the western areas of the Peninsula. The first of these incursions occurred when a fleet of these Crusaders was invited by the Portuguese king Afonso I Henriques to conquer the city of Lisbon in 1142. Although this Siege of Lisbon (1142) was a failure it created a precedent for their involvement in Portugal. So in 1147 when another group of Norman and other groups of crusaders from Northern Europe arrived in Porto on their way to join the crusading forces of the Second Crusade, the Bishop of Porto and later Afonso Henriques according to ''De expugnatione Lyxbonensi'' convinced them to help with the siege of Lisbon. This time the city was captured and according to the arrangement agreed upon with the Portuguese monarch many of them settled in the newly sacked city. The following year the remainder of the crusading fleet, including a substantial number of Anglo-Normans, was invited by the count of Barcelona, Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona, Ramon Berenguer IV, to participate in the siege of Tortosa (1148). Again the Normans were rewarded with lands in the newly conquered frontier city.
North Africa
Between 1135 and 1160, the Norman
Kingdom of Sicily
Kingdom may refer to:
Monarchy
* A type of monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch
A monarch is a head of stateWebster's II New College DictionarMonarch Houghton Mifflin. Boston. 2001. p. 707. L ...

conquered and kept as vassals several cities on the Ifriqiya coast, corresponding to Tunisia and parts of Algeria and Libya today.
They were lost to the Almohads.
Byzantium
Soon after the Normans began to enter Italy, they entered the Byzantine Empire and then Medieval Armenia, Armenia, fighting against the Pechenegs, the Bulgarians, and especially the Seljuk Turks. Norman mercenaries were first encouraged to come to the south by the Lombards to act against the Byzantines, but they soon fought in Byzantine service in Sicily. They were prominent alongside Varangian and Lombard contingents in the Sicilian campaign of George Maniaces in 1038–40. There is debate whether the Normans in Greek service actually were from Norman Italy, and it now seems likely only a few came from there. It is also unknown how many of the "Franks", as the Byzantines called them, were Normans and not other Frenchmen.

One of the first Norman mercenaries to serve as a Byzantine general was Hervé (Norman), Hervé in the 1050s. By then, however, there were already Norman mercenaries serving as far away as Trabzon, Trebizond and Georgia (country), Georgia. They were based at Malatya and Edessa, Mesopotamia, Edessa, under the Byzantine duke of Antioch, Isaac Komnenos, Duke of Antioch, Isaac Komnenos. In the 1060s, Robert Crispin led the Normans of Edessa against the Turks. Roussel de Bailleul even tried to carve out an independent state in Asia Minor with support from the local population, but he was stopped by the Byzantine general Alexius I Komnenos, Alexius Komnenos.
Some Normans joined Turkish forces to aid in the destruction of the Armenian vassal-states of Sassoun and Taron (historic Armenia), Taron in far eastern Anatolia. Later, many took up service with the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, Armenian state further south in Cilicia and the Taurus Mountains. A Norman named Roussel de Bailleul, Oursel led a force of "Franks" into the upper Euphrates valley in northern Syria. From 1073 to 1074, 8,000 of the 20,000 troops of the Armenian general Philaretus Brachamius were Normans—formerly of Oursel—led by Raimbaud. They even lent their ethnicity to the name of their castle: Afranji, meaning "Franks". The known trade between Republic of Amalfi, Amalfi and Antioch and between Bari and Tarsus (city), Tarsus may be related to the presence of Italo-Normans in those cities while Amalfi and Bari were under Norman rule in Italy.
Several families of Byzantine Greece were of Norman mercenary origin during the period of the Comnenian Restoration, when Byzantine emperors were seeking out western European warriors. The Raoulii were descended from an Italo-Norman named Raoul, the Petraliphae were descended from a Pierre d'Aulps, and that group of Albanian clans known as the Maniakates were descended from Normans who served under George Maniaces in the Sicilian expedition of 1038.
Robert Guiscard, another Norman adventurer previously elevated to the dignity of count of Apulia as the result of his military successes, ultimately drove the Byzantines out of southern
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic ( it, Repubblica Italiana, links=no ), is a country consisting of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula delimited by the Alps and List of islands of Italy, several islands surrounding it, whose ...

. Having obtained the consent of Pope Gregory VII and acting as his vassal, Robert continued his campaign conquering the Balkan peninsula as a foothold for western feudal lords and the Catholic Church. After allying himself with Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102), Croatia and the Catholic cities of Dalmatia, in 1081 he led an army of 30,000 men in 300 ships landing on the southern shores of Albania, capturing Vlora, Valona, Kaninë, Kanina, Jericho (Orikumi), and reaching Butrint after numerous pillages. They joined the fleet that had previously conquered Corfu and attacked Dyrrachium from land and sea, devastating everything along the way. Under these harsh circumstances, the locals accepted the call of Emperor Alexios I Comnenos to join forces with the Byzantines against the Normans. The Byzantine forces could not take part in the ensuing Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081), battle because it had started before their arrival. Immediately before the battle, the Venetian fleet had secured a victory in the coast surrounding the city. Forced to retreat, Alexios ceded the city of Dyrrachium to the Count of the Tent (or Byzantine provincial administrators) mobilizing from Arbanon (i.e., ἐξ Ἀρβάνων ὁρμωμένω Κομισκόρτη; the term ''Κομισκόρτη'' is short for κόμης της κόρτης meaning "Count of the Tent"). The city's garrison resisted until February 1082, when Dyrrachium was betrayed to the Normans by the Venetian and Amalfitan merchants who had settled there. The Normans were now free to penetrate into the hinterland; they took Ioannina and some minor cities in southwestern Macedonia and Thessaly before appearing at the gates of Thessalonica. Dissension among the high ranks coerced the Normans to retreat to Italy. They lost Dyrrachium, Valona, and Butrint in 1085, after the death of Robert.
A few years after the First Crusade, in 1107, the Normans under the command of Bohemond, Robert's son, landed in Valona and besieged Dyrrachium using the most sophisticated military equipment of the time, but to no avail. Meanwhile, they occupied Petrela, the citadel of Mili at the banks of the river Devoll (river), Deabolis, Gllavenica (Ballsh), Kanina and Jericho. This time, the Albanians sided with the Normans, dissatisfied by the heavy taxes the Byzantines had imposed upon them. With their help, the Normans secured the Arbanon passes and opened their way to Dibra. The lack of supplies, disease and Byzantine resistance forced Bohemond to retreat from his campaign and sign a peace treaty with the Byzantines in the city of Deabolis.
The further decline of Byzantine state-of-affairs paved the road to a third attack in 1185, when a large Norman army invaded Dyrrachium, owing to the betrayal of high Byzantine officials. Some time later, Dyrrachium—one of the most important naval bases of the Adriatic—fell again to Byzantine hands.
England
The Normans were in contact with England from an early date. Not only were their original Viking brethren still ravaging the English coasts, they occupied most of the important ports opposite England across the
English Channel
The English Channel,, "The Sleeve"; nrf, la Maunche, "The Sleeve" (Cotentinais
Cotentinais is the dialect
The term dialect (from Latin , , from the Ancient Greek word , , "discourse", from , , "through" and , , "I speak") is used in two ...

. This relationship eventually produced closer ties of blood through the marriage of Emma of Normandy, Emma, sister of Duke Richard II of Normandy, and King Ethelred II of England. Because of this, Ethelred fled to Normandy in 1013, when he was forced from his kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard. His stay in Normandy (until 1016) influenced him and his sons by Emma, who stayed in Normandy after Cnut the Great's conquest of the isle.
When Edward the Confessor finally returned from his father's refuge in 1041, at the invitation of his half-brother Harthacnut, he brought with him a Norman-educated mind. He also brought many Norman counsellors and fighters, some of whom established an English cavalry force. This concept never really took root, but it is a typical example of Edward's attitude. He appointed Robert of Jumièges Archbishop of Canterbury and made Ralph the Timid Earl of Hereford. He invited his brother-in-law Eustace II, Count of Boulogne to his court in 1051, an event that resulted in the greatest of early conflicts between Saxon and Norman and ultimately resulted in the exile of Earl Godwin of Wessex.
On 14 October 1066,
William the Conqueror
William I (c. 1028Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 33 – 9 September 1087), usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman
Norman or Normans may refer to:
Ethnic and cultural identi ...

gained a decisive victory at the
Battle of Hastings
The Battle of Hastings or nrf, Batâle dé Hastings was fought on 14 October 1066 between the Norman-French army of William, the Duke of Normandy, and an English army under the Anglo-Saxon
The Anglo-Saxons were a cultural group
Cu ...

, which led to the conquest of England three years later; this can be seen on the Bayeux tapestry. The invading Normans and their descendants largely replaced the Anglo-Saxons as the ruling class of England. The nobility of England were part of a single Norman culture and many had lands on both sides of the channel. Early Norman kings of England, as Dukes of Normandy, owed homage to the King of France for their land on the continent. They considered England to be their most important holding (it brought with it the title of King—an important status symbol).
Eventually, the Normans merged with the natives, combining languages and traditions, so much so that Marjorie Chibnall says "writers still referred to Normans and English; but the terms no longer meant the same as in the immediate aftermath of 1066." In the course of the Hundred Years' War, the Norman aristocracy often identified themselves as English. The Anglo-Norman language became distinct from the Latin language, something that was the subject of some humour by Geoffrey Chaucer. The Anglo-Norman language was eventually absorbed into the Anglo-Saxon language of their subjects (see Old English) and influenced it, helping (along with the Norse language of the earlier Danelaw, Anglo-Norse settlers and the Ecclesiastical Latin, Latin used by the church) in the development of Middle English, which, in turn, evolved into Modern English.
Ireland

The Normans had a profound effect on Irish culture and history after their invasion at Bannow Bay in 1169. Initially, the Normans maintained a distinct culture and ethnicity. Yet, with time, they came to be subsumed into Irish culture to the point that it has been said that they became "More Irish than the Irish themselves (slogan), more Irish than the Irish themselves". The Normans settled mostly in an area in the east of
Ireland
Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Great Britain and Ireland), North Channel, the Irish Sea ...

, later known as the Pale, and also built many fine castles and settlements, including Trim Castle and Dublin Castle. The cultures intermixed, borrowing from each other's language, culture and outlook. Norman surnames still exist today. Names such as ''French'', ''(De) Roche'', ''Devereux'', ''D'Arcy'', ''Treacy'' and ''Lacy'' are particularly common in the southeast of Ireland, especially in the southern part of Wexford County, where the first Norman settlements were established. Other Norman names, such as ''Furlong'', predominate there. Another common Norman-Irish name was Morell (Murrell), derived from the French Norman name ''Morel''. Names beginning with ''Fitz-'' (from the Norman for "son") usually indicate Norman ancestry. Hibernia, Hiberno-Norman surnames with the prefix ''Fitz-'' include ''FitzGerald dynasty, Fitzgerald'', ''FitzGibbons'' (Gibbons) as well as ''Fitzmaurice''. Families bearing such surnames as ''Barry (name), Barry'' (''de Barra'') and ''House of Burke, De Búrca'' (''Burke'') are also of Norman extraction.
Scotland
One of the claimants of the English throne opposing William I of England, William the Conqueror, Edgar Atheling, eventually fled to Scotland. King Malcolm III of Scotland married Edgar's sister Saint Margaret of Scotland, Margaret, and came into opposition to William who had already disputed Scotland's southern borders. William invaded Scotland in 1072, riding as far as Abernethy, Perth and Kinross, Abernethy where he met up with his fleet of ships. Malcolm submitted, paid homage to William and surrendered his son Duncan II of Scotland, Duncan as a hostage, beginning a series of arguments as to whether the Scottish Crown owed allegiance to the King of England.
Normans went into Scotland, building castles and founding noble families that would provide some future kings, such as Robert I of Scotland, Robert the Bruce, as well as founding a considerable number of the Scottish clans. King David I of Scotland, whose elder brother Alexander I of Scotland, Alexander I had married Sybilla of Normandy, was instrumental in introducing Normans and Norman culture to Kingdom of Scotland, Scotland, part of the process some scholars call the "Davidian Revolution". Having spent time at the court of Henry I of England (married to David's sister Edith of Scotland, Maud of Scotland), and needing them to wrestle the kingdom from his half-brother Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair, David had to reward many with lands. The process was continued under David's successors, most intensely of all under William I of Scotland, William the Lion. The Norman-derived feudal system was applied in varying degrees to most of Scotland. Scottish families of the names Bruce (surname), Bruce, Gray (surname), Gray, Ramsay, Fraser, Rose, Ogilvie, Montgomery, Sinclair, Pollock, Burnard, Douglas and Gordon (surname), Gordon to name but a few, and including the later royal House of Stewart, can all be traced back to Norman ancestry.
Wales

Even before the Norman Conquest of England, the Normans had come into contact with
Wales
Wales ( cy, Cymru ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by England to the Wales–England border, east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and the Bristol Channel to the south. It ...

. Edward the Confessor had set up the aforementioned Ralph as Earl of Hereford and charged him with defending the Welsh Marches, Marches and warring with the Welsh. In these original ventures, the Normans failed to make any headway into Wales.
After the Conquest, however, the Marches came completely under the dominance of William's most trusted Norman barons, including Bernard de Neufmarché, Roger de Montgomerie, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, Roger of Montgomery in Shropshire and Hugh, 1st Earl of Chester, Hugh Lupus in Cheshire. These Normans began a long period of slow conquest during which almost all of Wales was at some point subject to Norman interference. Norman words, such as ''baron'' (), first entered Welsh language, Welsh at that time.
On crusade
The legendary religious zeal of the Normans was exercised in religious wars long before the First Crusade carved out a Norman Principality of Antioch, principality in Antioch. They were major foreign combatants in the
Reconquista
The ' (Portuguese
Portuguese may refer to:
* anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal
** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods
** Portuguese language, a Romance language
*** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portug ...

in Iberian Peninsula, Iberia. In 1018, Roger I of Tosny, Roger de Tosny travelled to the Iberian Peninsula to carve out a state for himself from Moorish lands, but failed. In 1064, during the War of Barbastro, William of Montreuil, Roger Crispin and probably Walter Guiffard led an army under the papal hanner which took a huge booty as they captured the city from its Andelusi rulers. Later a group of Normans led by certain William (some have suggested this was William the Carpenter) participated in the failed siege of Tudela of 1087.
In 1096, Crusaders passing by the siege of Amalfi were joined by Bohemund I of Antioch, Bohemond of Taranto and his nephew Tancred, Prince of Galilee, Tancred with an army of Italo-Normans. Bohemond was the ''de facto'' leader of the Crusade during its passage through Asia Minor. After the successful Siege of Antioch in 1097, Bohemond began carving out an independent principality around that city. Tancred was instrumental in the conquest of Jerusalem and he worked for the expansion of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Crusader kingdom in Oultrejordain, Transjordan and the region of Galilee..
After the First Crusade to the Levant, the Normans continued with their involvement in Iberia as well as other areas of the Meditierranean. Among them was Rotrou of Perche and his followers Robert Burdet and William Giffard who joined multiple expeditions into the Ebro Valley to aid Alfonso I of Aragon in his campaigns of conquest. Robert Burdet managed to acquire the position of Alcide of Tudela by 1123 and later that of Prince of the city Tarragona in 1129.
Anglo-Norman conquest of Cyprus

The conquest of Cyprus by the
Anglo-NormanAnglo-Norman may refer to:
*Anglo-Normans
The Anglo-Normans ( nrf, Anglo-Normaunds, ang, Engel-Norðmandisca) were the medieval ruling class in England, composed mainly of a combination of ethnic Anglo-Saxons, Normans, Bretons, Flemish people, F ...
forces of the Third Crusade opened a new chapter in the history of the island, which would be under Western European domination for the following 380 years. Although not part of a planned operation, the conquest had much more permanent results than initially expected.
In April 1191, Richard I of England, Richard the Lion-hearted left Messina with a large fleet in order to reach Acre (city), Acre. But a storm dispersed the fleet. After some searching, it was discovered that the boat carrying his sister and his fiancée Berengaria was anchored on the south coast of Cyprus, together with the wrecks of several other ships, including the treasure ship. Survivors of the wrecks had been taken prisoner by the island's despot Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus, Isaac Komnenos. On 1 May 1191, Richard's fleet arrived in the port of Limassol on Cyprus. He ordered Isaac to release the prisoners and the treasure. Isaac refused, so Richard landed his troops and took Limassol.

Various princes of the Holy Land arrived in Limassol at the same time, in particular Guy de Lusignan. All declared their support for Richard provided that he support Guy against his rival Conrad of Montferrat. The local barons abandoned Isaac, who considered making peace with Richard, joining him on the crusade, and offering his daughter in marriage to the person named by Richard. But Isaac changed his mind and tried to escape. Richard then proceeded to conquer the whole island, his troops being led by Guy de Lusignan. Isaac surrendered and was confined with silver chains, because Richard had promised that he would not place him in irons. By 1 June, Richard had conquered the whole island. His exploit was well publicized and contributed to his reputation; he also derived significant financial gains from the conquest of the island. Richard left for Acre, Israel, Acre on 5 June, with his allies. Before his departure, he named two of his Norman generals, Richard de Camville and Robert of Thornham, Robert de Thornham, as governors of Cyprus.
While in Limassol, Richard the Lion-Heart married Berengaria of Navarre, first-born daughter of King Sancho VI of Navarre. The wedding was held on 12 May 1191 at the Chapel of St. George and it was attended by Richard's sister Joan of England, Queen of Sicily, Joan, whom he had brought from Kingdom of Sicily, Sicily. The marriage was celebrated with great pomp and splendor. Among other grand ceremonies was a double coronation: Richard caused himself to be crowned King of Cyprus, and Berengaria Queen of England and List of Cypriot consorts, Queen of Cyprus as well.

The rapid Anglo-Norman conquest proved more important than it seemed. The island occupied a key strategic position on the maritime lanes to the Holy Land, whose occupation by the Christians could not continue without support from the sea. Shortly after the conquest, Cyprus was sold to the Knights Templar and it was subsequently acquired, in 1192, by Guy de Lusignan and became a Kingdom of Cyprus, stable feudal kingdom. It was only in 1489 that the Republic of Venice, Venetians acquired full control of the island, which remained a Christian stronghold until the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573), fall of Famagusta in 1571.
Canary Islands
Between 1402 and 1405, the expedition led by the Norman noble Jean de Bethencourt
and the Poitevine Gadifer de la Salle conquered the Canary Islands, Canarian islands of Lanzarote, Fuerteventura and El Hierro off the Atlantic coast of Africa. Their troops were gathered in Normandy, Gascony and were later reinforced by Castilian people, Castilian colonists.
Bethencourt took the title of King of the Canary Islands, as vassal to Henry III of Castile. In 1418, Jean's nephew Maciot de Bethencourt sold the rights to the islands to Enrique Pérez de Guzmán, 2nd Count de Niebla.
Culture
Language
When
Norse
Norse is demonym for Norsemen, a medieval North Germanic ethnolinguistic group ancestral to modern Scandinavians, defined as speakers of Old Norse from about the 9th to the 13th centuries.
Norse may also refer to:
Culture and religion
* Norse m ...
Vikings from
Scandinavia
Scandinavia; : ''Skadesi-suolu''/''Skađsuâl''. ( ) is a in , with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties.
In English usage, ''Scandinavia'' can refer to , , and , sometimes more narrowly to the , or more broadly to include , th ...

arrived in the then-province of
Neustria
Neustria was the western part of the Francia, Kingdom of the Franks.
Neustria included the land between the Loire and the Silva Carbonaria, approximately the north of present-day France, with Paris, Orléans, Tours, Soissons as its main cities. ...
and settled the land that became known as Normandy, they originally spoke
Old Norse
Old Norse, Old Nordic, or Old Scandinavian is a stage of development of North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia
Scandinavia; : ''Skades ...
, a North Germanic language. Over time, they came to live among the local Gallo-Romance languages, Gallo-Romance-speaking population, with the two communities converging to the point that the original Norsemen largely assimilated and adopted the local dialect of Old French while contributing some elements from the
Old Norse
Old Norse, Old Nordic, or Old Scandinavian is a stage of development of North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia
Scandinavia; : ''Skades ...
language. This Norse-influenced dialect which then arose was known as Old Norman, and it is the ancestor of both the modern
Norman language
Norman or Norman French (', french: Normand, Guernésiais
Guernésiais, also known as ''Dgèrnésiais'', Guernsey French, and Guernsey Norman French, is the variety of the Norman language spoken in Guernsey. It is sometimes known on the island ...
still spoken today in the
Channel Islands
The Channel Islands ( nrf, Îles d'la Manche; french: îles Anglo-Normandes or ''îles de la Manche'') are an archipelago in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy. They include two Crown Dependencies: the Jersey, Bailiwick of ...

and parts of mainland Normandy, as well as the historical Anglo-Norman language in England. Old Norman was also an important language of the
Principality of Antioch
The Principality of Antioch was one of the crusader states
The Crusader states were feudal polities created by the Latin Catholic leaders of the First Crusade
The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wa ...
during Crusader rule in the
Levant
The Levant () is an term referring to a large area in the region of . In its narrowest sense, it is equivalent to the , which included present-day , , , , and most of southwest of the middle . In its widest historical sense, the Levant ...

.
Old Norman and Anglo-Norman literature was quite extensive during the Middle Ages, with records existing from notable Norman poets such as Wace, who was born on the island of Jersey and raised in mainland Normandy.
Norman law
The Custom (law), customary law of
Normandy
Normandy (; french: link=no, Normandie ; nrf, Normaundie; from Old French
Old French (, , ; Modern French
French ( or ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, ...

was developed between the 10th and 13th centuries and survives today through the legal systems of Law of Jersey, Jersey and Guernsey in the
Channel Islands
The Channel Islands ( nrf, Îles d'la Manche; french: îles Anglo-Normandes or ''îles de la Manche'') are an archipelago in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy. They include two Crown Dependencies: the Jersey, Bailiwick of ...

. Norman customary law was transcribed in two Coutume, customaries in Latin by two judges for use by them and their colleagues:
These are the ''Très ancien coutumier'' (''Very ancient customary''), authored between 1200 and 1245; and the ''Grand coutumier de Normandie'' (''Great customary of Normandy'', originally ''Summa de legibus Normanniae in curia laïcali''), authored between 1235 and 1245.
Architecture

Norman architecture typically stands out as a new stage in the architectural history of the regions they subdued. They spread a unique Romanesque architecture, Romanesque idiom to England, Italy and Ireland, and the encastellation of these regions with keeps in their north French style fundamentally altered the military landscape. Their style was characterised by rounded arches, particularly over windows and doorways, and massive proportions.
In England, the period of Norman architecture immediately succeeds that of the Anglo-Saxon architecture, Anglo-Saxon and precedes the Gothic architecture, Early Gothic. In southern Italy, the Normans incorporated elements of Islamic architecture, Islamic, Lombardic architecture, Lombard, and Byzantine architecture, Byzantine building techniques into their own, initiating a unique style known as Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture#Norman-Arab-Byzantine architecture, Norman-Arab architecture within the
Kingdom of Sicily
Kingdom may refer to:
Monarchy
* A type of monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch
A monarch is a head of stateWebster's II New College DictionarMonarch Houghton Mifflin. Boston. 2001. p. 707. L ...

.
Visual arts
In the visual arts, the Normans did not have the rich and distinctive traditions of the cultures they conquered. However, in the early 11th century, the dukes began a programme of church reform, encouraging the Cluniac reform of monasteries and patronising intellectual pursuits, especially the proliferation of scriptoria and the reconstitution of a compilation of lost illuminated manuscripts. The church was utilised by the dukes as a unifying force for their disparate duchy. The chief monasteries taking part in this "renaissance" of Norman art and scholarship were Mont-Saint-Michel, Fécamp, Jumièges, Bec-de-Mortagne, Bec, Saint-Ouen, Rouen, Saint-Ouen, Saint-Evroul, and Saint-Wandrille. These centres were in contact with the so-called "Winchester school", which channeled a pure Carolingian artistic tradition to Normandy. In the final decade of the 11th and first of the 12th century, Normandy experienced a golden age of illustrated manuscripts, but it was brief and the major scriptoria of Normandy ceased to function after the midpoint of the century.

The French Wars of Religion in the 16th century and the French Revolution in the 18th successively destroyed much of what existed in the way of the architectural and artistic remnant of this Norman creativity. The former, with their violence, caused the wanton destruction of many Norman edifices; the latter, with its assault on religion, caused the purposeful destruction of religious objects of any type, and its destabilisation of society resulted in rampant pillaging.
By far the most famous work of Norman art is the Bayeux Tapestry, which is not a tapestry but a work of embroidery. It was commissioned by Odo of Bayeux, Odo, the Bishop of Bayeux and first Earl of Kent, employing natives from Kent who were learned in the Nordic traditions imported in the previous half century by the Danes (Germanic tribe), Danish Vikings.
In Britain, Norman art primarily survives as stonework or metalwork, such as capital (column), capitals and baptismal fonts. In southern Italy, however, Norman artwork survives plentifully in forms strongly influenced by its Greeks, Greek, Lombards, Lombard, and Arab forebears. Of the royal regalia preserved in Palermo, the crown is Byzantine in style and the coronation cloak is of Arab craftsmanship with Arabic language, Arabic inscriptions. Many churches preserve sculptured fonts, capitals, and more importantly mosaics, which were common in Norman Italy and drew heavily on the Greek heritage. Lombard Salerno was a centre of ivorywork in the 11th century and this continued under Norman domination. French Crusaders traveling to the Holy Land brought with them French artefacts with which to gift the churches at which they stopped in southern Italy amongst their Norman cousins. For this reason many south Italian churches preserve works from France alongside their native pieces.
Music
Normandy was the site of several important developments in the history of classical music in the 11th century. Fécamp Abbey and Saint-Evroul Abbey were centres of musical production and education. At Fécamp, under two Italian abbots, William of Volpiano and John of Ravenna, the system of denoting notes by letters was developed and taught. It is still the most common form of pitch representation in English- and German-speaking countries today. Also at Fécamp, the Staff (music), staff, around which neumes were oriented, was first developed and taught in the 11th century. Under the German abbot Isembard of La Trinité-du-Mont, Isembard, La Trinité-du-Mont became a centre of musical composition.
At Saint Evroul, a tradition of singing had developed and the choir achieved fame in Normandy. Under the Norman abbot Robert de Grantmesnil, several monks of Saint-Evroul fled to southern Italy, where they were patronised by Robert Guiscard and established a Latin monastery at Lamezia Terme#Sant'Eufemia Lamezia, Sant'Eufemia Lamezia. There they continued the tradition of singing.
Rulers
* Duke of Normandy#Counts and Dukes of Normandy, List of Dukes of Normandy
* Count of Apulia, List of Counts and Dukes of Apulia and Calabria
* List of Counts of Aversa
* List of Princes of Capua
* List of Hypati and Dukes of Gaeta, List of Dukes of Gaeta
* Principality of Taranto#Hauteville (Altavilla) dynasty, List of Princes of Taranto
* List of monarchs of Sicily
* Principality of Antioch#Princes of Antioch, 1098–1268, List of Princes of Antioch
* Officers of the Principality of Antioch, List of Officers of the Principality of Antioch
* Lusignan dynasty#Second House of Lusignan, Second House of Lusignan
* List of English monarchs#House of Normandy, List of English Monarchs
* List of Scottish monarchs
See also
*
Bailiwick of Guernsey
The Bailiwick of Guernsey (french: Bailliage de Guernesey; Guernésiais
Guernésiais, also known as ''Dgèrnésiais'', Guernsey French, and Guernsey Norman French, is the variety of the Norman language spoken in Guernsey. It is sometimes known ...

*
Bailiwick of Jersey
A bailiwick () is usually the area of jurisdiction of a bailiff, and once also applied to territories in which a privately appointed bailiff exercised the sheriff's functions under a royal or imperial writ.
In English language, English the origina ...

*
Channel Islands
The Channel Islands ( nrf, Îles d'la Manche; french: îles Anglo-Normandes or ''îles de la Manche'') are an archipelago in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy. They include two Crown Dependencies: the Jersey, Bailiwick of ...

*
Cotentin Peninsula
The Cotentin Peninsula (, ; nrf, Cotentîn ), also known as the Cherbourg Peninsula, is a peninsula in Normandy
Normandy (; french: link=no, Normandie ; nrf, Normaundie; from Old French , plural of ''Normant'', originally from the word for "n ...

* House of Normandy
*
Norman language
Norman or Norman French (', french: Normand, Guernésiais
Guernésiais, also known as ''Dgèrnésiais'', Guernsey French, and Guernsey Norman French, is the variety of the Norman language spoken in Guernsey. It is sometimes known on the island ...
* Norsemen
* Rus' people
References
Sources
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Secondary
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Further reading
*
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External links
* .
* , English translation.
* .
* .
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{{short description, European ethnic group emerging in the 10th and 11th century in France
Normans,