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A combination of aqueducts,
reservoir A reservoir (; from French ''réservoir'' ) is an enlarged lake behind a dam. Such a dam may be either artificial, built to store fresh water or it may be a natural formation. Reservoirs can be created in a number of ways, including contr ...
s, and
tunnels A tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through surrounding soil, earth or rock, and enclosed except for the entrance and exit, commonly at each end. A Pipeline transport, pipeline is not a tunnel, though some recent tunnels have used ...
supplies fresh water to
New York City New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the List of United States cities by population, most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the L ...
. With three major water systems ( Croton, Catskill, and
Delaware Delaware ( ) is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, bordering Maryland to its south and west; Pennsylvania to its north; and New Jersey and the Atlantic Ocean to its east. The state takes its name from the adjacent ...
) stretching up to away from the city, its water supply system is one of the most extensive municipal water systems in the world. New York's water treatment process is simpler than most other American cities. This largely reflects how well protected its watersheds are. The city has sought to restrict development surrounding them. One of its largest watershed protection programs is the Land Acquisition Program, under which the New York City Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) has purchased or protected, through
conservation easement In the United States, a conservation easement (also called conservation covenant, conservation restriction or conservation servitude) is a power invested in a qualified private land conservation organization (often called a "land trust") or gover ...
, over since 1997. With all the care given, the city's water supply system is partially exempted from filtration requirements by both the federal and the state government, saving more than "$10 billion to build a massive filtration plant, and at least another $100 million annually on its operation". Moreover, the special topography the waterways run on allows 95% of the system's water to be supplied by gravity. The percentage of pumped water does change when the water level in the reservoirs is out of the normal range.


History


Early years

Until the eighteenth century, New York City solely depended on primitive means, such as wells and rainwater reservoirs to collect water for daily use. The first public well was dug in Bowling Green, New York, in 1677, and the first reservoir was built on the east side of New York in 1776 after the population grew up to 22,000.
Collect Pond Collect Pond, or Fresh Water Pond,, p. 250. was a body of fresh water in what is now Chinatown in Lower Manhattan, New York City. For the first two centuries of European settlement in Manhattan, it was the main New York City water supply syst ...
, or "Fresh Water Pond", was a body of fresh water in what is now
Chinatown A Chinatown () is an ethnic enclave of Chinese people located outside Greater China, most often in an urban setting. Areas known as "Chinatown" exist throughout the world, including Europe, North America, South America, Asia, Africa and Aust ...
in
Lower Manhattan Lower Manhattan (also known as Downtown Manhattan or Downtown New York) is the southernmost part of Manhattan, the central borough for business, culture, and government in New York City, which is the most populated city in the United States with ...
. For the first two centuries of European settlement in Manhattan, it was the main water supply system for the growing city. Later, the city was aware of its deteriorated water quality, owing to its rapid population growth (60,000 to 200,000 from 1800 to 1830), which had a considerable danger of causing epidemics. In April 1831, a new water supply and distribution system opened, for fighting fires. It included a well and cistern on 13th Street between Bowery (today 4th Avenue) and Third Avenue, which was then at the northern fringes of the city. The well was immense—16 feet across and 112 feet deep—blasted largely through rock, resulting in a quarry of over 175,000 gallons of water. A steam engine had the capacity to lift nearly half a million gallons a day. An octagonal iron tank, 43 feet in diameter and 20 feet high was installed atop a 27-foot-high stone tower. Mains under Broadway and the Bowery delivered the water to hydrants on Pearl, William, Hudson, and a dozen other major streets, in six-, ten-, and twelve-inch pipes, delivering water to a height of 60 feet above the highest streets. The
Old Croton Aqueduct The Croton Aqueduct or Old Croton Aqueduct was a large and complex water distribution system constructed for New York City between 1837 and 1842. The great aqueducts, which were among the first in the United States, carried water by gravity from ...
was opened for public use in 1842, and apart from a few inspections during the
Civil War A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government polici ...
era the system has been running unceasingly ever since. In the late 1800s, additional aqueducts were systematically installed in to meet the increasing demand.


Old and New Croton Aqueducts

The city's first aqueduct, the Croton Aqueduct, was built during 1837 to 1842, from the
Croton River The Croton River ( ) is a river in southern New York with three principal tributaries: the West Branch, Middle Branch, and East Branch. Their waters, all part of the New York City water supply system, join downstream from the Croton Falls R ...
in
Westchester County Westchester County is located in the U.S. state of New York. It is the seventh most populous county in the State of New York and the most populous north of New York City. According to the 2020 United States Census, the county had a population ...
, down to Manhattan, a distance of . The Old Croton Aqueduct's capacity was around 90 million gallons per day. To meet the city's growing needs, the city started construction of the New Croton Aqueduct in 1885. The new aqueduct opened for operation in 1890 with a capacity of 300 million gallons per day.


Catskill Aqueduct

In 1905, the city's newly established Board of Water Supply launched the
Catskill Aqueduct The Catskill Aqueduct, part of the New York City water supply system, brings water from the Catskill Mountains to Yonkers where it connects to other parts of the system. History Construction commenced in 1907. The aqueduct proper was completed ...
project, which would play an additional role in supplying the city's ever-growing population of residents and visitors. Construction of the system began in 1907. Portions of the Catskill system began operation in 1916, and the overall system of dams, reservoirs and tunnels was complete by 1924. The Schoharie Reservoir was added to the system and began operation in 1926. The Catskill system has an operational capacity of approximately 850 million gallons per day. Within the city's overall water system, the Catskill Aqueduct is the furthest away from the city, approximately .


Delaware Aqueduct

The Board of Water Supply submitted a request to the Board of Estimate and Apportionment in 1927 to use the
Delaware River The Delaware River is a major river in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. From the meeting of its branches in Hancock, New York, the river flows for along the borders of New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware, before ...
as an additional water source for New York City. Even though the request was approved, the Delaware Aqueduct project was delayed due to a
Supreme Court A supreme court is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts in most legal jurisdictions. Other descriptions for such courts include court of last resort, apex court, and high (or final) court of appeal. Broadly speaking, the decisions of ...
case filed by the State of New Jersey to prevent the State of New York from using the Delaware River as a water source. New York won the case in May 1931 and construction of the Delaware Aqueduct began in March 1937. The aqueduct was completed in 1944. From 1950 to 1964, Rondout, Neversink, Pepacton, and Cannonsville reservoirs were established successively to complete the Delaware System. The Delaware Aqueduct supports half of the whole city's water usage by supplying more than 500 million gallons of water daily.


Responsible agencies

Responsibility for the city water supply is shared among three institutions: the New York City Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), which operates and maintains the system and is responsible for investment planning; the New York City Municipal Water Finance Authority (NYW), which raises debt financing in the market to underwrite the system's costs; and the Water Board, which sets rates and collects user payments.


New York City Department of Environmental Protection

The DEP has a workforce of over 7,000 employees. It includes three bureaus in charge of, respectively, the upstate water supply system, New York City's water and sewer operations, and
wastewater treatment Wastewater treatment is a process used to remove contaminants from wastewater and convert it into an effluent that can be returned to the water cycle. Once returned to the water cycle, the effluent creates an acceptable impact on the environm ...
: * The Bureau of Water Supply manages, operates, and protects New York City's upstate water supply system to ensure the delivery of a sufficient quantity of high quality
drinking water Drinking water is water that is used in drink or food preparation; potable water is water that is safe to be used as drinking water. The amount of drinking water required to maintain good health varies, and depends on physical activity level, ...
. The Bureau is also responsible for the overall management and implementation of the city's $1.5 billion Watershed Protection Program. * The Bureau of Water and Sewer Operations operates and maintains the water supply and sewerage system. It is also responsible for the operation of the Staten Island Bluebelt, a natural alternative to storm sewers, which occupies approximately of land in the South Richmond area of
Staten Island Staten Island ( ) is a Boroughs of New York City, borough of New York City, coextensive with Richmond County, in the U.S. state of New York (state), New York. Located in the city's southwest portion, the borough is separated from New Jersey b ...
. This project preserves streams, ponds and other wetland ("bluebelt") areas, allowing them to perform their natural function of conveying, storing and filtering storm water. * The Bureau of Wastewater Treatment operates 14 water pollution control plants treating an average of of wastewater a day; 95 wastewater pump stations; eight dewatering facilities; 490 sewer regulators; and of intercepting sewers.


New York City Municipal Water Finance Authority

The NYW finances the
capital Capital may refer to: Common uses * Capital city, a municipality of primary status ** List of national capital cities * Capital letter, an upper-case letter Economics and social sciences * Capital (economics), the durable produced goods used fo ...
needs of the water and sewer system of the city through the issuance of bonds,
commercial paper Commercial paper, in the global financial market, is an unsecured promissory note with a fixed maturity of rarely more than 270 days. In layperson terms, it is like an " IOU" but can be bought and sold because its buyers and sellers have some ...
, and other debt instruments. It is a public-benefit corporation created in 1985 pursuant to the New York City Municipal Water Finance Authority Act. The authority is administered by a seven-member Board of Directors. Four of the members are ex officio members: the Commissioner of Environmental Protection of the City, the Director of Management and Budget of the City, the Commissioner of Finance of the City, and the Commissioner of Environmental Conservation of the State. The remaining three members are public appointments: two by the Mayor, and one by the Governor.


New York City Water Board

The New York City Water Board was established in 1905. It sets water and sewer rates for New York City sufficient to pay the costs of operating and financing the system, and collects user payments from customers for services provided by the water and wastewater utility systems of the City of New York. The five Board members are appointed to two-year terms by the mayor.


Infrastructure

New York City's water system consists of aqueducts, distribution pipes, reservoirs, and
water tunnels Water (chemical formula ) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as a s ...
that channel drinking water to residents and visitors. A comprehensive raised-relief map of the system is on display at the Queens Museum of Art. Until the early 21st century, some places in southeastern Queens received their water from local wells of the former Jamaica Water Supply Company.


Reservoirs and aqueducts

The water system has a storage capacity of and provides over per day of drinking water to more than eight million city residents, and another one million users in four upstate counties bordering on the system. Three separate sub-systems, each consisting of aqueducts and reservoirs, bring water from
Upstate New York Upstate New York is a geographic region consisting of the area of New York (state), New York State that lies north and northwest of the New York metropolitan area, New York City metropolitan area. Although the precise boundary is debated, Upsta ...
to New York City: * The New Croton Aqueduct, completed in 1890, brings water from the New Croton Reservoir in Westchester and Putnam counties. * The
Catskill Aqueduct The Catskill Aqueduct, part of the New York City water supply system, brings water from the Catskill Mountains to Yonkers where it connects to other parts of the system. History Construction commenced in 1907. The aqueduct proper was completed ...
, completed in 1916, is significantly larger than New Croton and brings water from two reservoirs in the eastern
Catskill Mountains The Catskill Mountains, also known as the Catskills, are a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian Mountains, located in southeastern New York. As a cultural and geographic region, the Catskills are generally defined as those areas cl ...
. * The
Delaware Aqueduct The Delaware Aqueduct is an aqueduct in the New York City water supply system. It takes water from the Rondout, Cannonsville, Neversink, and Pepacton reservoirs on the west bank of the Hudson River through the Chelsea Pump Station, then into ...
, completed in 1945, taps tributaries of the Delaware River in the western Catskill Mountains and provides approximately half of New York City's water supply. The latter two aqueducts provide 90% of New York City's drinking water, and the watershed for these aqueducts extends a combined . Two-fifths of the watershed is owned by the New York City, state, or local governments, or by private conservancies. The rest of the watershed is private property that is closely monitored for pollutants; development upon this land is restricted. The DEP has purchased or protected over of private land since 1997 through its Land Acquisition Program. Water from both aqueducts is stored first in the large
Kensico Reservoir The Kensico Reservoir is a reservoir spanning the towns of Armonk (North Castle) and Valhalla ( Mount Pleasant), New York, located 3 miles (5 km) north of White Plains. It was formed by the original earth and gravel Kensico Dam constructed in 18 ...
and subsequently in the much smaller Hillview Reservoir closer to the city. The water is monitored by robotic
buoys A buoy () is a floating device that can have many purposes. It can be anchored (stationary) or allowed to drift with ocean currents. Types Navigational buoys * Race course marker buoys are used for buoy racing, the most prevalent form of yac ...
that measure temperature as well as pH, nutrient, and microbial levels in the reservoirs. A computer system then analyzes the measurements and makes predictions for the water quality. In 2015, the buoys took 1.9 million measurements of the water in the reservoirs.


Disinfection and filtration

The water in the Kensico Reservoir flows to the Catskill-Delaware Water Ultraviolet Disinfection Facility, located in Westchester County. Although the city water system uses
chlorination Chlorination may refer to: * Chlorination reaction In chemistry, halogenation is a chemical reaction that entails the introduction of one or more halogens into a compound. Halide-containing compounds are pervasive, making this type of transform ...
as a basic disinfection technology, the
ultraviolet disinfection Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) is a disinfection method that uses short- wavelength ultraviolet ( ultraviolet C or UV-C) light to kill or inactivate microorganisms by destroying nucleic acids and disrupting their DNA, leaving them ...
(UV) facility was built to control microorganisms such as ''
giardia ''Giardia'' ( or ) is a genus of anaerobic flagellated protozoan parasite Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and ...
'' and ''
cryptosporidium ''Cryptosporidium'', sometimes informally called crypto, is a genus of apicomplexan parasitic alveolates that can cause a respiratory and gastrointestinal illness (cryptosporidiosis) that primarily involves watery diarrhea (intestinal crypt ...
'' which are resistant to chlorine treatment. Ultraviolet treatment was seen as the least risky way to control such microorganisms and avoid higher levels of chlorination, which can lead to unintended health effects. The UV facility opened on October 8, 2013, and was built at a cost of $1.6 billion. The compound is the largest
ultraviolet germicidal irradiation Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) is a disinfection method that uses short-wavelength ultraviolet ( ultraviolet C or UV-C) light to kill or inactivate microorganisms by destroying nucleic acids and disrupting their DNA, leaving them unab ...
plant in the world; it contains 56 UV reactors that could treat per day. While all the water goes through the disinfection process, only 10% of the water is filtered. The
Croton Water Filtration Plant The Croton Water Filtration Plant, is a drinking water treatment facility in New York City which began operation in 2015. The plant construction cost was over $3 billion, The facility was built under Van Cortlandt Park's Mosholu Golf Course in ...
, completed in 2015 at a cost of over $3 billion, was built under
Van Cortlandt Park Van Cortlandt Park is a park located in the borough of the Bronx in New York City. Owned by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation, it is managed with assistance from the Van Cortlandt Park Alliance. The park, the city's third-lar ...
in the Bronx and filters water delivered by the New Croton Aqueduct. The plant, which is bigger than
Yankee Stadium Yankee Stadium is a baseball stadium located in the Bronx, New York City. It is the home field of the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball, and New York City FC of Major League Soccer. Opened in April 2009, the stadium replaced the orig ...
, is New York City's first water filtration plant. The plant was built after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the U.S. Department of Justice and the
State of New York New York, officially the State of New York, is a state in the Northeastern United States. It is often called New York State to distinguish it from its largest city, New York City. With a total area of , New York is the 27th-largest U.S. state ...
filed suit against the city in 1997 for violating the
Safe Drinking Water Act The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the principal federal law in the United States intended to ensure safe drinking water for the public. Pursuant to the act, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is required to set standards for drinking wa ...
and the New York State Sanitary Code. The city government agreed to rehabilitate the New Croton Aqueduct and build a
filtration plant Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids, and gases from water. The goal is to produce water that is fit for specific purposes. Most water is purified and disinfected for h ...
. The plant includes a UV disinfection system. The city had been studying possible sites for such a plant for more than 20 years in both the Bronx and Westchester.


Tunnels and distribution system


Tunnels

From the Hillview reservoir water flows by gravity to three tunnels under New York City. Water rises again to the surface under natural pressure, through a number of shafts. The three tunnels are: #New York City Water Tunnel No. 1, completed in 1917. It runs from the Hillview Reservoir under the central
Bronx The Bronx () is a borough of New York City, coextensive with Bronx County, in the state of New York. It is south of Westchester County; north and east of the New York City borough of Manhattan, across the Harlem River; and north of the New Y ...
,
Harlem River The Harlem River is an tidal strait in New York, United States, flowing between the Hudson River and the East River and separating the island of Manhattan from the Bronx on the New York mainland. The northern stretch, also called the Spuyt ...
, West Side, Midtown, and
Lower East Side The Lower East Side, sometimes abbreviated as LES, is a historic neighborhood in the southeastern part of Manhattan in New York City. It is located roughly between the Bowery and the East River from Canal to Houston streets. Traditionally an im ...
of
Manhattan Manhattan (), known regionally as the City, is the most densely populated and geographically smallest of the five boroughs of New York City. The borough is also coextensive with New York County, one of the original counties of the U.S. state ...
, and under the
East River The East River is a saltwater tidal estuary in New York City. The waterway, which is actually not a river despite its name, connects Upper New York Bay on its south end to Long Island Sound on its north end. It separates the borough of Quee ...
to
Brooklyn Brooklyn () is a borough of New York City, coextensive with Kings County, in the U.S. state of New York. Kings County is the most populous county in the State of New York, and the second-most densely populated county in the United States, be ...
where it connects to Tunnel 2. It is expected to undergo extensive repairs upon completion of Tunnel No. 3. #New York City Water Tunnel No. 2, completed in 1935. It runs from the Hillview Reservoir under the central
Bronx The Bronx () is a borough of New York City, coextensive with Bronx County, in the state of New York. It is south of Westchester County; north and east of the New York City borough of Manhattan, across the Harlem River; and north of the New Y ...
,
East River The East River is a saltwater tidal estuary in New York City. The waterway, which is actually not a river despite its name, connects Upper New York Bay on its south end to Long Island Sound on its north end. It separates the borough of Quee ...
, and western
Queens Queens is a borough of New York City, coextensive with Queens County, in the U.S. state of New York. Located on Long Island, it is the largest New York City borough by area. It is bordered by the borough of Brooklyn at the western tip of Long ...
to Brooklyn, where it connects to Tunnel 1 and the Richmond Tunnel to
Staten Island Staten Island ( ) is a Boroughs of New York City, borough of New York City, coextensive with Richmond County, in the U.S. state of New York (state), New York. Located in the city's southwest portion, the borough is separated from New Jersey b ...
. When completed, it was the longest large diameter water tunnel in the world. #The uncompleted
New York City Water Tunnel No. 3 New York City Water Tunnel No. 3 is a water-supply tunnel forming part of the New York City water supply system. It is being built by the New York City Department of Environmental Protection to provide New York City with a third connection to it ...
, the largest capital construction project in New York City's history (see Ongoing repairs and upgrades). It starts at Hillview Reservoir in Yonkers, New York then crosses under Central Park in Manhattan, to reach Fifth Avenue at 78th Street. From there it runs under the East River and Roosevelt Island into Astoria, Queens. From there it will continue on to Brooklyn.


Distribution

The distribution system is made up of an extensive grid of water mains stretching approximately . , it costs the city $140 million to maintain these mains. There are 965 water sampling stations in New York City. The water-sampling system has been in use since 1997. They consist of small cast-iron boxes with spigots inside them, raised above the ground. Scientists from the city measure water from 50 stations every day. The samples are then tested for microorganisms, toxic chemicals, and other contaminants that could potentially harm users of the water supply system. In 2015, the DEP performed 383,000 tests on 31,700 water samples.


Ongoing repairs and upgrades

Leaks were first discovered in the Delaware Aqueduct in 1988, with water losses up to per day. In 2010 the city announced a plan for a major repair project for the aqueduct. In 2013 work began on a bypass tunnel under the Hudson River, the largest construction project in DEP's history. The tunnel construction completed in 2019 and the overall bypass project is expected to be complete in 2023. In 2018, the city announced a US$1 billion investment to protect the integrity of its municipal water system and to maintain the purity of its unfiltered water supply. A significant portion of the investment will be used to prevent the turbidity that might be caused by
climate change In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to ...
, including relocating the residents and cleaning up decaying plantations near the watersheds, and conducting flood-preventing research for infrastructures near the watersheds. According to Eric A. Goldstein, a senior lawyer for the
Natural Resources Defense Council The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) is a United States-based 501(c)(3) non-profit international environmental advocacy group, with its headquarters in New York City and offices in Washington D.C., San Francisco, Los Angeles, Chicago, Bo ...
: "This is no time to let down one’s guard". The construction of Water Tunnel No. 3 is intended to provide the city with a critical third connection to its Upstate New York water supply system so that the city can, for the first time, close tunnels No. 1 and No. 2 for repair. The tunnel will eventually be more than long. Construction on the tunnel began in 1970, and its first and second phases are completed. The latter opened with a ceremony under
Central Park Central Park is an urban park in New York City located between the Upper West and Upper East Sides of Manhattan. It is the fifth-largest park in the city, covering . It is the most visited urban park in the United States, with an estimated ...
, in 2013. Completion of all phases is not expected until 2026.


See also

* Brooklyn Waterworks *
Environmental issues in New York City Environmental issues in New York City are affected by the city's size, density, Transportation in New York City, abundant public transportation infrastructure, and location at the mouth of the Hudson River. New York's population density has en ...
* High Bridge (New York City) – part of the old Croton Aqueduct system * Integrated urban water management * Water supply and sanitation in the United States *
Water supply network A water supply network or water supply system is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components that provide water supply. A water supply system typically includes the following: # A drainage basin (see water purification – sou ...


References


Further reading

* *


External links


NYC GOV Watershed History

New York City Municipal Water Finance Authority
in the
New York Codes, Rules and Regulations The ''New York Codes, Rules and Regulations'' (NYCRR) contains New York state rules and regulations. The NYCRR is officially compiled by the New York State Department of State's Division of Administrative Rules. Contents See also * '' New York ...
{{DEFAULTSORT:New York City Water Supply System Supply system Tunnels in New York City