Northern Qiang is a
Sino-Tibetan language
Sino-Tibetan, also cited as Trans-Himalayan in a few sources, is a family of more than 400 languages, second only to Indo-European in number of native speakers. The vast majority of these are the 1.3 billion native speakers of Chinese languages. ...
of the
Qiangic branch, more specifically falling under the
Tibeto-Burman
The Tibeto-Burman languages are the non- Sinitic members of the Sino-Tibetan language family, over 400 of which are spoken throughout the Southeast Asian Massif ("Zomia") as well as parts of East Asia and South Asia. Around 60 million people spea ...
family. It is spoken by approximately 60,000 people in East
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa, Taman ...
, and in north-central
Sichuan Province
Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of the ...
,
China.
Unlike its close relative
Southern Qiang, Northern Qiang is not a
tonal language
Tone is the use of pitch in language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning – that is, to distinguish or to inflect words. All verbal languages use pitch to express emotional and other paralinguistic information and to convey emph ...
.
Northern Qiang dialects
Northern Qiang is composed of several different dialects, many of which are easily mutually intelligible.
Sun Hongkai in his book on Qiang in 1981 divides Northern Qiang into the following dialects: Luhua, Mawo, Zhimulin, Weigu, and Yadu. These dialects are located in
Heishui County
Heishui County (; ) is a county in the north of Sichuan Province, China. It is under the administration of the Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. The county has an area of and its average elevation is . As of 2016, the county has a p ...
as well as the northern part of
Mao County
Mao County or Maoxian (; ; Qiang: ʂqini) is a county in Ngawa Prefecture, Sichuan Province, China.
It has an area of 3,903 and a population of 106,700 as of 2006. 88.9% of the population are Qiang people. The county seat is Fengyi ().
Natu ...
. The Luhua, Mawo, Zhimulin, and Weigu varieties of Northern Qiang are spoken by the Heishui Tibetans. The Mawo dialect is considered to be the prestige dialect by the Heishui Tibetans.
Names seen in the older literature for Northern Qiang dialects include ''Dzorgai (Sifan), Kortsè (Sifan), Krehchuh,'' and ''Thóchú/Thotcu/Thotśu.'' The last is a place name.
Sims (2016) characterizes Northern (Upstream) Qiang as the *nu- innovation group. Individual dialects are highlighted in ''italics''.
;Northern Qiang
*NW
Heishui: ''Luhua'' 芦花镇
*Central
Heishui
**''Qinglang'' 晴朗乡
**''Zhawo'' 扎窝乡
**''Ciba'' 慈坝乡
**''Shuangliusuo'' 双溜索乡
**
uvular
Uvulars are consonants articulated with the back of the tongue against or near the uvula, that is, further back in the mouth than velar consonants. Uvulars may be stops, fricatives, nasals, trills, or approximants, though the IPA does not prov ...
V's innovation group: ''Zhimulin'' 知木林乡, ''Hongyan'' 红岩乡, ''Mawo'' 麻窝乡
*SE
Heishui: ''Luoduo'' 洛多乡, ''Longba'' 龙坝乡, ''Musu'' 木苏乡, ''Shidiaolou'' 石碉楼乡
*North
Maoxian: ''Taiping'' 太平乡, ''Songpinggou'' 松坪沟乡
*South
Songpan
Songpan; former Songzhou, is a county of northwestern Sichuan province, China, and is one of the 13 counties administered by the Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. It has an area of , and a population of approximately 68,000 composed ...
: ''Xiaoxing'' 小姓乡, ''Zhenjiangguan'' 镇江关乡, ''Zhenping'' 镇坪乡
*West
Maoxian / South
Heishui: ''Weigu'' 维古乡, ''Waboliangzi'' 瓦钵乡梁子, ''Se'ergu'' 色尔古镇, ''Ekou'', ''Weicheng'' 维城乡, ''Ronghong'', ''Chibusu'', ''Qugu'' 曲谷乡, ''Wadi'' 洼底乡, ''Baixi'' 白溪乡, ''Huilong'' 回龙乡, ''Sanlong'' 三龙乡
*Central
Maoxian: ''Heihu'' 黑虎乡
*SE
Maoxian (reflexive marker innovation): ''Goukou'' 沟口乡, ''Yonghe'' 永和乡
Phonology
The phonemic inventory of the Northern Qiang of Ronghong village consists of 37 consonants, and eight basic vowel qualities.
The syllable structure of Northern Qiang allows up to six sounds.
Consonants
* A glottal stop
may be heard in word-initial position when preceding vowels.
* /ɸ/ can also be heard as a labio-dental
* /ʐ/ can also be heard as an alveolar
* /ɕ x/ can have voiced allophones of
ɣ
* Approximants
jare not distinct from /i u/ but are transcribed in intervocalic position, and initially /i u/, to clarify syllable division.
Vowels
Northern Qiang distinguishes between unstressed and
long vowels
In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived length of a vowel sound: the corresponding physical measurement is duration. In some languages vowel length is an important phonemic factor, meaning vowel length can change the meaning of the word, ...
(signified by two small dots, "ː") for all of its vowels except for /ə/ . In addition, there exist 15 diphthongs and one triphthong in the language of Northern Qiang.
There may not be a significant phonetic difference in sound between /i/ and /e/, and /u/ and /o/, respectively. In fact, they are often used in place of one another without changing the meaning.
Diphthongs and
triphthong
In phonetics, a triphthong (, ) (from Greek τρίφθογγος, "triphthongos", literally "with three sounds," or "with three tones") is a monosyllabic vowel combination involving a quick but smooth movement of the articulator from one vowel q ...
s
Diphthongs: ia, iɑ, ie, ye, eu, əu, ei, əi, oi, uɑ, ua, uə, ue, ui, ya
Triphthong: uəi
R-coloring
In phonetics, an r-colored or rhotic vowel (also called a retroflex vowel, vocalic r, or a rhotacized vowel) is a vowel that is modified in a way that results in a lowering in frequency of the third formant. R-colored vowels can be articulate ...
As the Northern Qiang language becomes more endangered, the use of r-coloring is not being passed down to younger generations of the Northern Qiang people. As a result, there is great variation in its use. R-coloring is not considered its own phoneme because it is a vowel feature and only used to produce
vowel harmony
In phonology, vowel harmony is an assimilatory process in which the vowels of a given domain – typically a phonological word – have to be members of the same natural class (thus "in harmony"). Vowel harmony is typically long distance, mea ...
(see below), most commonly signifying a first person plural marking.
* Example: ''miʴwu''
erson ('all the people'
Syllable structure
The following is the Northern Qiang Syllable prototype structure. All are optional apart from the central vowel (underlined):
: FC GVGC ᴾF.
(The final 'fricative' may be a fricative F, an affricate ᴾF, or /l/.)
All consonants occur as initials, though /ŋ/ only before /u/, and /ɦ/ only in a directional prefix and in a filler interjection. Almost all apart from the aspirated consonants occur as finals. These do not preserve Proto-Tibeto-Burman
Proto-Tibeto-Burman (commonly abbreviated PTB) is the reconstructed ancestor of the Tibeto-Burman languages, that is, the Sino-Tibetan languages, except for Chinese. An initial reconstruction was produced by Paul K. Benedict and since refined b ...
finals, which have all been lost, but are the result of the reduction of unstressed syllables (e.g. əf'tree' from /sə/ 'wood' + /pʰə/ 'forest').
Initial FC clusters may be:
:/ʂ/ + /p t tɕ k q b d dʑ ɡ m/,
:/x/ + /tɕ tʂ k s ʂ ɬ l dʑ dʐ z ʐ/,
:/χ/ + /tʂ q s ʂ ɬ l d dʑ dʐ z ʐ n/
The fricatives are voiced to ɣ ʁbefore a voiced consonant. In addition, /ʂ/ > zbefore /t d/ and > ʑbefore /pi pe bi tɕ dʑ/.
In final CᴾF clusters, the C is a fricative. Clusters include /ɕtɕ xʂ xtʂ xɬ ɣz ɣl χs/.
Phonological processes
Initial weakening
When a compound or a directional prefix is added before an aspirated initial, the latter becomes the final of the preceding syllable in the new word. This typically causes it to lose its aspiration.
* Example: ''tə-'' DIR + ''ba'' 'big' > ''təwa'' 'become big'
Vowel harmony
In phonology, vowel harmony is an assimilatory process in which the vowels of a given domain – typically a phonological word – have to be members of the same natural class (thus "in harmony"). Vowel harmony is typically long distance, mea ...
Vowel harmony exists in the Mawo (麻窝) dialect. Typically, vowel harmony is used to match a preceding syllable's vowel with the succeeding vowel or its height. In some cases, however, the vowel of a succeeding syllable will harmonize in the opposite way, matching with the preceding vowel. This process occurs across syllables in compounds or in prefix + root combinations. Vowel harmony can also occur for r-coloring on the first syllable if the second syllable of a compound or prefix + root combination already has r-coloring.
* Example: ''wə'' 'bird' + ''ʂpu'' 'flock' > ''wuʂpu'' '(wild) pigeon'
* Example: Chinese ''zhàogù'' + Qiang ''pə'' 'to do' > ''tʂɑuku-pu'' 'take care of'
* Example: ''me'' 'not' + ''weʴ'' 'reduce' > ''meʴ-weʴ'' 'unceasingly'
* Example: The realization of the word "one" (a) is influenced by the classifiers:
* (a day)
* (a can)
* (a packet)
* (a barrel)
* (a pile)
* (a mouth)
Epenthetic vowel
In phonology, epenthesis (; Greek ) means the addition of one or more sounds to a word, especially in the beginning syllable ('' prothesis'') or in the ending syllable (''paragoge'') or in-between two syllabic sounds in a word. The word ''epenth ...
The vowel /ə/ can be embedded within a collection of consonants that are restricted by the syllable canon. The epenthetic vowel is used to combine sounds that would typically be impermissible.
* Example: ''bəl-əs-je'' o-NOM (< ''-s'')-good to eat'advantageous'
Free variation
For some words, changing or adding consonants produces no phonological difference in meaning. The most common consonant interchange is between /ʂ/ and /χ/.
* Example: ''ʂqu ~ χqu'' 'mouth'
* Example: ''kɑp ~ kɑpətʂ 'orphan'''
Orthography
Nasalized
In phonetics, nasalization (or nasalisation) is the production of a sound while the velum is lowered, so that some air escapes through the nose during the production of the sound by the mouth. An archetypal nasal sound is .
In the Internationa ...
vowels are indicated with trailing ''nn'', rhotacized vowels are indicated with trailing ''r'', long vowels
In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived length of a vowel sound: the corresponding physical measurement is duration. In some languages vowel length is an important phonemic factor, meaning vowel length can change the meaning of the word, ...
are indicated by doubling the vowel letter.
Morphology
Northern Qiang uses affixes in the form of prefixes and suffixes to describe or modify the meaning of nouns and verbs. Other morphological processes that are affixed include gender marking, marking of genitive case, compounding, and nominalization. Northern Qiang also uses non-affixational processes such as reduplication.
Noun phrase
In Northern Qiang, any combination of the following order is allowed as long as it follows this flow. Some of the items found below, such as adjectives, may be used twice within the same noun phrase.
Northern Qiang noun phrase structure
GEN phrase + Rel. clause + Noun + ADJ + DEM/DEF + (NUM + CL)/PL
Gender marking
Gender marking only occurs in animals. Typically, /mi/ is the suffix for females, while /zdu/ is the suffix for males.
* ''wə-mi'' 'mare'
* ''puɳu-zdu'' 'male cat'
Pronouns
Northern Qiang pronouns can be represented from the 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person, and can refer to one, two, or more than two people.
Genitive case
The genitive marker /-tɕ(ə)/ is placed on the modifying noun; this modifying noun will precede the noun it modifies.
Verbal morphology
The meaning of verbs can be changed using prefixes and suffixes, or by using reduplication.
Reduplication
Repetition of the same root verb signifies a reciprocal action upon one actors, or an ongoing action.
* Example: ''mɑ'' 'plaster (a wall)' > ''məmɑ'' 'be plastering'
Other morphological processes
Compounding
In the field of pharmacy, compounding (performed in compounding pharmacies) is preparation of a custom formulation of a medication to fit a unique need of a patient that cannot be met with commercially available products. This may be done for me ...
In Northern Qiang, the modifying noun of the compound must precede the modified noun.
Nominalization
Nouns are created from adjectives or verbs using clitics /-s/, /-m/, or /-tɕ/, the indefinite markers /le/ or /te/, or the definite marker /ke/.
Syntax
The Northern Qiang language has quite a predictable syntax without many variations. The typical basic word order is subject–object–verb (SOV). Northern Qiang borrows some Mandarin Chinese
Mandarin (; ) is a group of Chinese (Sinitic) dialects that are natively spoken across most of northern and southwestern China. The group includes the Beijing dialect, the basis of the phonology of Standard Chinese, the official language ...
words and phrases.
Clause structure
Order
(TEMP) (LOC) (ACTOR) (GOAL/RECIPIENT) (ADV) (UG) VC (PART)
(TEMP = temporal phrase; UG = undergoer; VC = verb complex; PART = clause-final particle)
A sentence in Northern Qiang may be as short as a verb complex, which may just be a predicate noun.
As shown from the order stated above, Northern Qiang is a language with a SOV sentence structure.
Code mixing
Many loan words or loan phrases from Mandarin are borrowed, but the word order of these phrases is rearranged to fit the grammatical structure of Northern Qiang.
In this sentence, the words "tɕiutɕin" and "ʂə" are borrowed from Mandarin.
Status
As with many Qiangic languages
Qiangic (''Ch'iang, Kyang, Tsiang'', Chinese: 羌語支, "''Qiang'' language group"; formerly known as Dzorgaic) is a group of related languages within the Sino-Tibetan language family. They are spoken mainly in Southwest China, including Sichua ...
, Northern Qiang is becoming increasingly threatened. Because the education system largely uses Standard Chinese as a medium of instruction for the Qiang people, and as a result of the universal access to schooling and television, most Qiang children are fluent or even monolingual in Chinese while an increasing percentage cannot speak Qiang. Much of the population marry people from other parts of China who only speak Mandarin.
See also
* Qiangic languages
Qiangic (''Ch'iang, Kyang, Tsiang'', Chinese: 羌語支, "''Qiang'' language group"; formerly known as Dzorgaic) is a group of related languages within the Sino-Tibetan language family. They are spoken mainly in Southwest China, including Sichua ...
* Qiang people
The Qiang people ( Qiangic: ''Rrmea''; ) are an ethnic group in China. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognised by the People's Republic of China, with a population of approximately 310,000 in 2000. They live mainly in a ...
References
Bibliography
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Northern Qiang Language
Qiangic languages
Qiang people
Non-tonal languages in tonal families
Endangered Sino-Tibetan languages