Eastern South Asia is a subregion of

South Asia South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The region consists of the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.;;;;;;;; ...

. It includes the countries of

Bangladesh Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 165 million people in an area of . Bangladesh is among the mos ...

Bhutan Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainous ...

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...

(specifically

East India East India is a region of India consisting of the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal and also the union territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The region roughly corresponds to the historical region of Magadh ...

and

Northeast India , native_name_lang = mni , settlement_type = , image_skyline = , image_alt = , image_caption = , motto = , image_map = Northeast india.png , ...

), and

Nepal Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne, सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mai ...

. Geographically, it lies between the

Eastern Himalaya ] The Eastern Himalayas extend from eastern Nepal across Northeast India, Bhutan, the Tibet Autonomous Region to Yunnan in China and northern Myanmar. The climate of this region is influenced by the monsoon of South Asia from June to September. It ...

s and the

Bay of Bengal The Bay of Bengal is the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean, bounded on the west and northwest by India, on the north by Bangladesh, and on the east by Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Its southern limit is a line between ...

. Two of the world's largest rivers, the

Ganges The Ganges ( ) (in India: Ganga ( ); in Bangladesh: Padma ( )). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international river to which India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China are the riparian states." is ...

and the

Brahmaputra The Brahmaputra is a trans-boundary river which flows through Tibet, northeast India, and Bangladesh. It is also known as the Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibetan, the Siang/Dihang River in Arunachali, Luit in Assamese, and Jamuna River in Bangla. It ...

, flow into the sea through Eastern South Asia. The region includes the world's highest mountainous terrain and the world's largest delta, and has a climate ranging from

alpine Alpine may refer to any mountainous region. It may also refer to: Places Europe * Alps, a European mountain range ** Alpine states, which overlap with the European range Australia * Alpine, New South Wales, a Northern Village * Alpine National Pa ...

and subalpine to

subtropical The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical zone, geographical and Köppen climate classification, climate zones to the Northern Hemisphere, north and Southern Hemisphere, south of the tropics. Geographically part of the Geographical z ...

and

tropical The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...

. Since Nepal, Bhutan, and northeast India are

landlocked A landlocked country is a country that does not have territory connected to an ocean or whose coastlines lie on endorheic basins. There are currently 44 landlocked countries and 4 landlocked de facto states. Kazakhstan is the world's largest ...

, the coastlines of Bangladesh and East India serve as the principal gateways to the region. With more than 441 million inhabitants, Eastern South Asia is home to 6%of the

world's population In demographics, the world population is the total number of humans currently living. It was estimated by the United Nations to have exceeded 8 billion in November 2022. It took over 200,000 years of human prehistory and history for the ...

and 25% of South Asia's population. The Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal Initiative promotes economic integration in the region. The four countries are members of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation.

Yunnan Province Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the C ...

and the

Tibet Autonomous Region The Tibet Autonomous Region or Xizang Autonomous Region, often shortened to Tibet or Xizang, is a Provinces of China, province-level Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People's Republic of China in Southwest China. I ...

of the

People's Republic of China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...

(PRC) and

Myanmar Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John C. Wells, Joh ...

are historically, economically, and culturally interdependent on Eastern South Asia. The Bangladesh–China–India–Myanmar Forum has established an economic corridor in the region.

History

Archaeology

Eastern South Asia's

archaeological Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...

heritage includes Lumbini, the birthplace of the

Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...

; the ancient universities and monasteries of

Nalanda Nalanda (, ) was a renowned ''mahavihara'' (Buddhist monastic university) in ancient Magadha (modern-day Bihar), India.Vikramshila,

Somapura Mahavihara Somapura Mahavihara ( bn, সোমপুর মহাবিহার, Shompur Môhabihar) in Paharpur, Badalgachhi Upazila, Badalgachhi, Naogaon District, Naogaon, Bangladesh is among the best known Buddhist viharas or monasteries in the Indi ...

Jaggadala Jagaddala Mahavihara ( fl. late 11th century - mid-12th century) was a Buddhist monastery and seat of learning in Varendra, a geographical unit in present north Bengal in Bangladesh.''Buddhist Monks And Monasteries Of India: Their History And Co ...

Odantapuri Odantapuri (also called Odantapura or Uddandapura) was a prominent Buddhist Mahavihara in what is now Bihar Sharif in Bihar, India. It is believed to have been established by the Pala ruler Gopala I in the 8th century. It is considered the second ...

and

Mainamati Moinamoti (''Môynamoti'') is an isolated low, dimpled range of hills, dotted with more than 50 ancient Buddhist settlements dating between the 8th and 12th century CE. It was part of the ancient Tripura division of Bengal. It extends through the ...

; the

Ashokan pillar The pillars of Ashoka are a series of monolithic columns dispersed throughout the Indian subcontinent, erected or at least inscribed with edicts by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka during his reign from c. 268 to 232 BCE. Ashoka used the expressi ...

s and the

Mauryan Empire The Maurya Empire, or the Mauryan Empire, was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in the Indian subcontinent based in Magadha, having been founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, and existing in loose-knit fashion until 1 ...

-era cities of

Pataliputra Pataliputra (IAST: ), adjacent to modern-day Patna, was a city in ancient India, originally built by Magadha ruler Ajatashatru in 490 BCE as a small fort () near the Ganges river.. Udayin laid the foundation of the city of Pataliputra at the ...

champa Champa (Cham: ꨌꩌꨛꨩ; km, ចាម្ប៉ា; vi, Chiêm Thành or ) were a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of what is contemporary central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd cen ...

, Vaishali, Balirajpur,

Rajgir Rajgir, meaning "The City of Kings," is a historic town in the district of Nalanda in Bihar, India. As the ancient seat and capital of the Haryanka dynasty, the Pradyota dynasty, the Brihadratha dynasty and the Mauryan Empire, as well as the d ...

Sisupalgarh Sisupalgarh or Sisupalagada is situated in Khurda District in Odisha, India and houses ruined fortifications. It used to be the capital of ancient Kalinga. It is identified with Kalinganagara of Kharavela and Tosali of Ashoka. It is one of ...

Kalinga Kalinga may refer to: Geography, linguistics and/or ethnology * Kalinga (historical region), a historical region of India ** Kalinga (Mahabharata), an apocryphal kingdom mentioned in classical Indian literature ** Kalinga script, an ancient writin ...

and

Mahasthangarh Mahasthangarh ( bn, মহাস্থানগড়, ''Môhasthangôṛ'') is one of the earliest urban archaeological sites so far discovered in Bangladesh. The village Mahasthan in Shibganj upazila of Bogra District contains the remain ...

; and the ruined fort cities of

Wari-Bateshwar The Wari-Bateshwar (Bengali: উয়ারী-বটেশ্বর,''Uari-Bôṭeshshor'') ruins in Narsingdi, Dhaka Division, Bangladesh is one of the earliest urban archaeological sites in Bangladesh. Excavation in the site unearthed a ...

Bhitagarh Bhitargarh ( bn, ভিতরগড়) is an archaeological site that includes the remains of an ancient fort city built in and around the 5th century AD. It is located in Panchagarh District in Rangpur Division in the northern part of Bangladesh ...

, and

Chandraketugarh Chandraketugarh is a 2,500 years old archaeological site located near the Bidyadhari river, about north-east of Kolkata, India, in the district of North 24 parganas, near the township of Berachampa and the Harua Road railhead. Once it was a ...

. The region has an important Buddhist Tourist Circuit. Eastern South Asia hosts a large number of medieval and early modern

mosque A mosque (; from ar, مَسْجِد, masjid, ; literally "place of ritual prostration"), also called masjid, is a place of prayer for Muslims. Mosques are usually covered buildings, but can be any place where prayers ( sujud) are performed, ...

s, including Adina Mosque, the subcontinent's largest medieval mosque, and the Sixty Dome Mosque, and large

caravansaries A caravanserai (or caravansary; ) was a roadside inn where travelers ( caravaners) could rest and recover from the day's journey. Caravanserais supported the flow of commerce, information and people across the network of trade routes covering ...

such as

Bara Katra Bara Katra ( bn, বড় কাটরা; Great Caravanserai) is one of the oldest historical and architectural monuments in Dhaka. The word Katra may have originated from Arabic word Katara which means colonnaded building. 'Katra/ katara' in ...

and

Katra Masjid The Katra Masjid is a former caravanserai, mosque and the tomb of Nawab Murshid Quli Khan. It was built between 1723 and 1724. It is one of the largest caravanserais in the Indian subcontinent. It was built during the 18th century, when the ear ...

. It is home to several outstanding examples of medieval and early modern Hindu temple architecture, particularly the

Newa architecture Newa architecture is an indigenous style of architecture used by the Newari people in the Kathmandu valley in Nepal. It is a style used in buildings ranging from stupas and chaitya monastery buildings to courtyard structures and distinctive houses ...

of Nepal and the

architecture of Bengal The architecture of Bengal, which comprises the modern country of Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura and Assam's Barak Valley, has a long and rich history, blending indigenous elements from the Indian subcontinent, with influ ...

Old kingdoms

Eastern South Asia is a cradle of South Asian civilization. Historical states in the region include those recorded in Indian epics such as the

Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...

, including ancient Nepal, Vanga, and

Pundra Pundravardhana or Pundra Kingdom ( sa, Puṇḍravardhana), was an ancient kingdom during the Iron Age period in India with a territory that included parts of present-day Rajshahi and Rangpur Divisions of Bangladesh as well as the West Dina ...

; the Greek and

Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...

recorded kingdom of Gangaridai; major Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms including Kikata,

Videha Videha ( Prākrit: ; Pāli: ; Sanskrit: ) was an ancient Indo-Aryan tribe of north-eastern South Asia whose existence is attested during the Iron Age. The population of Videha, the Vaidehas, were initially organised into a monarchy but later ...

, Vṛji,

Magadha Magadha was a region and one of the sixteen sa, script=Latn, Mahajanapadas, label=none, lit=Great Kingdoms of the Second Urbanization (600–200 BCE) in what is now south Bihar (before expansion) at the eastern Ganges Plain. Magadha was ruled ...

Nanda Nanda may refer to: Indian history and religion * Nanda Empire, ruled by the Nanda dynasty, an Indian royal dynasty ruling Magadha in the 4th century BCE ** Mahapadma Nanda, first Emperor of the Nanda Empire ** Dhana Nanda (died c. 321 BCE), last ...

, Mauryan,

Anga Anga (Sanskrit: ) was an ancient Indo-Aryan tribe of eastern South Asia whose existence is attested during the Iron Age. The members of the Aṅga tribe were called the Āṅgeyas. Counted among the "sixteen great nations" in Buddhist texts ...

Kamarupa Kamarupa (; also called Pragjyotisha or Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa), an early state during the Classical period on the Indian subcontinent, was (along with Davaka) the first historical kingdom of Assam. Though Kamarupa prevailed from 350 to 11 ...

, Samatata,

Kanva Kanva (Sanskrit: कण्व '), also called Karnesh, was an ancient Hindu rishi of the ''Treta Yuga'', to whom some of the hymns of the ''Rig Veda'' are ascribed. He was one of the Angirasas. He has been called a son of Ghora, but this lineag ...

Gupta Gupta () is a common surname or last name of Indian origin. It is based on the Sanskrit word गोप्तृ ''goptṛ'', which means 'guardian' or 'protector'. According to historian R. C. Majumdar, the surname ''Gupta'' was adopted by se ...

Pala Pala may refer to: Places Chad *Pala, Chad, the capital of the region of Mayo-Kebbi Ouest Estonia * Pala, Kose Parish, village in Kose Parish, Harju County * Pala, Kuusalu Parish, village in Kuusalu Parish, Harju County *Pala, Järva County, vi ...

, Gauda,

Sena Sena may refer to: Places * Sanandaj or Sena, city in northwestern Iran * Sena (state constituency), represented in the Perlis State Legislative Assembly * Sena, Dashtestan, village in Bushehr Province, Iran * Sena, Huesca, municipality in Huesc ...

, Khadga,

Candra The Chandra kingdom was a Buddhist kingdom, originating from the Indian subcontinent, which ruled the Samatata region of Bengal, as well as northern Arakan. Later it was a neighbor to the Pala Empire to the north. Rulers of Chandra kingdom were ...

Deva Deva may refer to: Entertainment * ''Deva'' (1989 film), a 1989 Kannada film * ''Deva'' (1995 film), a 1995 Tamil film * ''Deva'' (2002 film), a 2002 Bengali film * Deva (2007 Telugu film) * ''Deva'' (2017 film), a 2017 Marathi film * Deva ...

Tripura Tripura (, Bengali: ) is a state in Northeast India. The third-smallest state in the country, it covers ; and the seventh-least populous state with a population of 36.71 lakh ( 3.67 million). It is bordered by Assam and Mizoram to the east a ...

, and

Cooch Behar State Cooch Behar, also known as Koch Bihar, was a princely state in India during the British Raj. The state was placed under the Bengal States Agency, part of the Eastern States Agency of the Bengal Presidency. It is located south of the Hima ...

. Major Islamic empires in the region included the

Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders w ...

and

Bengal Sultanate The Sultanate of Bengal ( Middle Bengali: শাহী বাঙ্গালা ''Shahī Baṅgala'', Classical Persian: ''Saltanat-e-Bangālah'') was an empire based in Bengal for much of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. It was the dominan ...

s, and the Suri and

Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire was an early-modern empire that controlled much of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries. Quote: "Although the first two Timurid emperors and many of their noblemen were recent migrants to the subcontinent, the d ...

s (including the important province of Mughal Bengal). A

confederation A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a union of sovereign groups or states united for purposes of common action. Usually created by a treaty, confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issu ...

of Muslim and Hindu aristocrats called the Baro-Bhuyan existed in the late 16th and early 17thcenturies.

Bengal Presidency

The

Bengal Presidency The Bengal Presidency, officially the Presidency of Fort William and later Bengal Province, was a subdivision of the British Empire in India. At the height of its territorial jurisdiction, it covered large parts of what is now South Asia and ...

was established in the 18thcentury by the

British Empire The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts esta ...

, with its headquarters in Fort William, in coastal southwestern Bengal. The British made Bengal the center of their Indian empire, during which Bengal became synonymous with India. Until the mid-19th century, the Bengal Presidency's jurisdiction covered British-controlled territories in

north India North India is a loosely defined region consisting of the northern part of India. The dominant geographical features of North India are the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Himalayas, which demarcate the region from the Tibetan Plateau and Central ...

, northeast India, and

Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...

. The

Governor of Bengal The Governor was the chief colonial administrator in the Bengal presidency, originally the "Presidency of Fort William" and later "Bengal province". In 1644, Gabriel Boughton procured privileges for the East India Company which permitted them to ...

was concurrently the

Governor General of India The Governor-General of India (1773–1950, from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India, commonly shortened to Viceroy of India) was the representative of the monarch of the United Kingdom and after Indian independence in 19 ...

for many years. Fort William's surroundings grew into the port city of

Calcutta Kolkata (, or , ; also known as Calcutta , List of renamed places in India#West Bengal, the official name until 2001) is the Capital city, capital of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of West Bengal, on the eastern ba ...

, which was the

capital of India This is a list of locations which have served as the capital city of India. The current capital city is New Delhi, which replaced Calcutta in 1911. Early period * Rajgir : Initial capital of the Magadha Empire from 6th century BCE to 460 BCE, ...

until 1911. After the British Indian Empire was established in 1858 following the

Indian Rebellion of 1857 The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising in India in 1857–58 against the rule of the British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the fo ...

, the

Bengal Renaissance Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...

flourished in Calcutta and other Bengali urban centers. The

Indian independence movement The Indian independence movement was a series of historic events with the ultimate aim of ending British Raj, British rule in India. It lasted from 1857 to 1947. The first nationalistic revolutionary movement for Indian independence emerged ...

, including parts of the

movement Movement may refer to: Common uses * Movement (clockwork), the internal mechanism of a timepiece * Motion, commonly referred to as movement Arts, entertainment, and media Literature * "Movement" (short story), a short story by Nancy Fu ...

which created Pakistan, had its origins in the Bengal Presidency. The Parliament of Bengal, including the

Bengal Legislative Council The Bengal Legislative Council ( was the legislative council of British Bengal (now Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal). It was the legislature of the Bengal Presidency during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. After reforms wer ...

and the Bengal Legislative Assembly, was the oldest and largest in British India. The Bengal Presidency had the highest

gross domestic product Gross domestic product (GDP) is a money, monetary Measurement in economics, measure of the market value of all the final goods and services produced and sold (not resold) in a specific time period by countries. Due to its complex and subjec ...

in British India.

Partition of Bengal

Citing administrative improvement and affirmative action for Bengali Muslims and non-Bengali communities in colonial Assam, the British government enacted the first partition of Bengal in 1905. The new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, with its own Legislative Council, saw more investments in education and infrastructure. The province was a center of the petroleum, tea, and jute industries. Its capital was

Dacca Dhaka ( or ; bn, ঢাকা, Ḍhākā, ), formerly known as Dacca, is the capital and largest city of Bangladesh, as well as the world's largest Bengali-speaking city. It is the eighth largest and sixth most densely populated city i ...

, with a summer capital at

Shillong Shillong () is a hill station and the capital of Meghalaya, a Indian state, state in northeastern India, which means "The Abode of Clouds". It is the headquarters of the East Khasi Hills district. Shillong is the list of most populous cities in ...

. The summer capital enjoyed the highest per capita income in British India. The

All India Muslim League The All-India Muslim League (AIML) was a political party established in Dhaka in 1906 when a group of prominent Muslim politicians met the Viceroy of British India, Lord Minto, with the goal of securing Muslim interests on the Indian subcontin ...

was formed in Dacca to safeguard the interests of British Indian Muslims. But the first partition sparked strong protests from elites in Calcutta and sections of the landed

gentry Gentry (from Old French ''genterie'', from ''gentil'', "high-born, noble") are "well-born, genteel and well-bred people" of high social class, especially in the past. Word similar to gentle imple and decentfamilies ''Gentry'', in its widest ...

, particularly

Bengali Hindus Bengali Hindus ( bn, বাঙ্গালী হিন্দু/বাঙালি হিন্দু, translit=Bāṅgālī Hindu/Bāṅāli Hindu) are an ethnoreligious population who make up the majority in the Indian states of West Benga ...

. The protests caused a pan-Indian political crisis. In 1912, East Bengal was reunited with West Bengal as Bengal Province while Assam was separated as Assam Province. The first partition left a strong legacy. Decades later in the 1940s, when Hindu–Muslim relations deteriorated, the British government again partitioned Bengal into

East Bengal ur, , common_name = East Bengal , status = Province of the Dominion of Pakistan , p1 = Bengal Presidency , flag_p1 = Flag of British Bengal.svg , s1 = East ...

and

West Bengal West Bengal (, Bengali: ''Poshchim Bongo'', , abbr. WB) is a state in the eastern portion of India. It is situated along the Bay of Bengal, along with a population of over 91 million inhabitants within an area of . West Bengal is the fourt ...

as part of the Partition of British India. East Bengal was made part of the Muslim-majority

Dominion of Pakistan Between 14 August 1947 and 23 March 1956, Pakistan was an independent federal dominion in the Commonwealth of Nations, created by the passing of the Indian Independence Act 1947 by the British parliament, which also created the Dominion of I ...

and West Bengal a part of the Hindu-majority

Dominion of India The Dominion of India, officially the Union of India,* Quote: “The first collective use (of the word "dominion") occurred at the Colonial Conference (April to May 1907) when the title was conferred upon Canada and Australia. New Zealand and N ...

. East Bengal was later renamed

East Pakistan East Pakistan was a Pakistani province established in 1955 by the One Unit Scheme, One Unit Policy, renaming the province as such from East Bengal, which, in modern times, is split between India and Bangladesh. Its land borders were with India ...

in 1955. In 1971, East Pakistan seceded in the

Bangladesh Liberation War The Bangladesh Liberation War ( bn, মুক্তিযুদ্ধ, , also known as the Bangladesh War of Independence, or simply the Liberation War in Bangladesh) was a revolution and War, armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Benga ...

, which established the People's Republic of Bangladesh. The constitution of Bangladesh established a multiparty parliamentary democracy in 1972. The country endured several military coups in the late 1970s and 1980s.

Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...

is the

state religion A state religion (also called religious state or official religion) is a religion or creed officially endorsed by a sovereign state. A state with an official religion (also known as confessional state), while not secular state, secular, is not n ...

of Bangladesh. In the Indian state of West Bengal, the

Communist Party of India Communist Party of India (CPI) is the oldest Marxist–Leninist communist party in India and one of the nine national parties in the country. The CPI was founded in modern-day Kanpur (formerly known as Cawnpore) on 26 December 1925. H ...

governed for three decades.

Himalayan states

The Eastern Himalayas has been home to three independent kingdoms since the 17thcentury, including the

Kingdom of Bhutan Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainous ...

, the

Kingdom of Sikkim The Kingdom of Sikkim (Classical Tibetan and sip, འབྲས་ལྗོངས།, ''Drenjong''), officially Dremoshong (Classical Tibetan and sip, འབྲས་མོ་གཤོངས།) until the 1800s, was a hereditary monarc ...

, and the Kingdom of Nepal. The Himalayan kingdoms served as

buffer state A buffer state is a country geographically lying between two rival or potentially hostile great powers. Its existence can sometimes be thought to prevent conflict between them. A buffer state is sometimes a mutually agreed upon area lying between t ...

s between

Imperial China The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the '' Book of Documents'' (early chapte ...

and India. In the 19thcentury, Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan became

protectorate A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a State (polity), state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over m ...

s of

British India The provinces of India, earlier presidencies of British India and still earlier, presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance on the Indian subcontinent. Collectively, they have been called British India. In one ...

. The Anglo-Nepal Treaty of 1923 recognized Nepal's sovereignty. The treaty was recorded in the

League of Nations The League of Nations (french: link=no, Société des Nations ) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ...

. Bhutan's relations with British India were managed under the

Treaty of Punakha The Treaty of Punakha was an agreement signed on 8 January 1910, at Punakha Dzong between the recently consolidated Kingdom of Bhutan and British India. The Treaty of Punakha is not a stand-alone document, but represents a modification of the Tr ...

of 1910. Sikkim's relations with British India were managed under the

Treaty of Titalia The Treaty of Titalia was signed between the Chogyal (monarch) of Kingdom of Sikkim and the British East India Company (EIC). The treaty, which was negotiated by Captain Barre Latter in February 1817, guaranteed security of Sikkim by the Briti ...

of 1817 and the

Treaty of Tumlong The Treaty of Tumlong was a March 1861 treaty between Great Britain and the Kingdom of Sikkim in present-day north-east India. Signed by Sir Ashley Eden on behalf of the British and Sikkimese Chogyal, Tsugphud Namgyal, the treaty secured protec ...

of 1861. After India became independent, it signed a treaty with Bhutan in 1949, and, in 1950, a treaty with Nepal and a treaty with Sikkim. The Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China, particularly after the

1959 Tibetan uprising The 1959 Tibetan uprising (also known by other names) began on 10 March 1959, when a revolt erupted in Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, which had been under the effective control of the People's Republic of China since the Seventeen Point Agreemen ...

, caused an exodus of Tibetan refugees into Northern and Eastern South Asia, including into Nepal and Bhutan. Refugees included the spiritual Tibetan head of state, the

Dalai Lama Dalai Lama (, ; ) is a title given by the Tibetan people to the foremost spiritual leader of the Gelug or "Yellow Hat" school of Tibetan Buddhism, the newest and most dominant of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. The 14th and current Dal ...

, who established the

Tibetan government in exile The Central Tibetan Administration (, , ), often referred to as the Tibetan Government-in-Exile, is a non-profit political organization based in Dharamshala, India. Its organization is modeled after an elective parliamentary government, compo ...

in India. The

CIA Tibetan program The CIA Tibetan program was a nearly two decades long anti-Chinese covert operation focused on Tibet which consisted of "political action, propaganda, paramilitary and intelligence operations" based on Federal government of the United States, U. ...

in Nepal trained Tibetan refugees for guerrilla war against the PRC. Following the Tibetan crisis, India and the PRC engaged in a brief border war in 1962 over the disputed

McMahon Line The McMahon Line is the boundary between Tibet and British India as agreed in the maps and notes exchanged by the respective plenipotentiaries on 24–25 March 1914 at Delhi, as part of the 1914 Simla Convention. The line delimited the resp ...

and Aksai Chin areas. In 1975, the Indian annexation of Sikkim was strongly opposed by China. Nepal's first period of parliamentary democracy lasted from 1950 to 1960. The King of Nepal imposed the

panchayat The Panchayat raj is a political system, originating from the Indian subcontinent, found mainly in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. It is the oldest system of local government in the Indian subcontinent, and historical ment ...

system in the 1960s and 1970s. A mass uprising pressured the King of Nepal to restore democracy in 1990. The Nepalese Civil War began in 1992. Bhutan joined the

United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...

in 1971. Bhutan was the first country to recognize the independence of Bangladesh.

Indian northeast

Colonial Assam was reorganized by the

Indian government The Government of India (ISO 15919, ISO: ; often abbreviated as GoI), known as the Union Government or Central Government but often simply as the Centre, is the Government, national government of the Republic of India, a federal democracy lo ...

into the

Seven Sister States , native_name_lang = mni , settlement_type = , image_skyline = , image_alt = , image_caption = , motto = , image_map = Northeast india.png , ...

of northeast India, including

Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh (, ) is a state in Northeastern India. It was formed from the erstwhile North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) region, and became a state on 20 February 1987. It borders the states of Assam and Nagaland to the south. It shares int ...

Assam Assam (; ) is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur ...

Manipur Manipur () ( mni, Kangleipak) is a state in Northeast India, with the city of Imphal as its capital. It is bounded by the Indian states of Nagaland to the north, Mizoram to the south and Assam to the west. It also borders two regions of Myanm ...

Meghalaya Meghalaya (, or , meaning "abode of clouds"; from Sanskrit , "cloud" + , "abode") is a states and union territories of India, state in northeastern India. Meghalaya was formed on 21 January 1972 by carving out two districts from the state of As ...

Mizoram Mizoram () is a state in Northeast India, with Aizawl as its seat of government and capital city. The name of the state is derived from "Mizo people, Mizo", the endonym, self-described name of the native inhabitants, and "Ram", which in the Mizo ...

Nagaland Nagaland () is a landlocked state in the northeastern region of India. It is bordered by the Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh to the north, Assam to the west, Manipur to the south and the Sagaing Region of Myanmar to the east. Its capital cit ...

, and

. Insurgency in Northeast India has been a security challenge for the Indian government. Since 1958, the Armed Forces Special Powers Act has been imposed in the region. The law has been described as perpetuating indirect

military rule Military rule may mean: * Military justice, the legal system applying to members of the armed forces * Martial law, where military authority takes over normal administration of law * Militarism or militarist ideology, the ideology of government as b ...

. There have been many allegations of

human rights abuses Human rights are moral principles or normsJames Nickel, with assistance from Thomas Pogge, M.B.E. Smith, and Leif Wenar, 13 December 2013, Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyHuman Rights Retrieved 14 August 2014 for certain standards of hum ...

in northeast India.

21st century

In 2003, China acknowledged Sikkim as a part of India while India recognized Tibet as part of China. The Dalai Lama has often asserted that Tibet should be given meaningful autonomy within China, not independence. In 2005, the King of Nepal imposed direct rule, which led to the monarchy's overthrow, the end of the civil war, and the creation of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal in 2008. Bhutan held its first general election in 2008. In 2011, India granted duty-free access to most Bangladeshi products. In 2012, India affirmed in principle to allow Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal to transit its territory for trade movement. In 2014, Bangladesh and India resolved their maritime boundary dispute at a UN tribunal. In 2015, India and Bangladesh signed a land boundary agreement to resolve border disputes. In 2014 Bangladesh and Bhutan signed a trade agreement in which Bhutan gained duty-free access for 90products in the Bangladeshi market. Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Bhutan signed a regional motor vehicle agreement in 2015. The four countries have agreed to develop

hydropower Hydropower (from el, ὕδωρ, "water"), also known as water power, is the use of falling or fast-running water to Electricity generation, produce electricity or to power machines. This is achieved by energy transformation, converting the Pot ...

in the Himalayas. Bhutan and India have developed two hydropower projects, as of 2017. Nepal has been a key participant in the Chinese

One Belt, One Road The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI, or B&R), formerly known as One Belt One Road ( zh, link=no, 一带一路) or OBOR for short, is a global infrastructure development strategy adopted by the Chinese government in 2013 to invest in nearly 150 ...

initiative, which seeks to revive the historical Silk Road between South Asia and Tibet. The rapid development of the

Chinese economy The China, People's Republic of China has an upper middle income Developing country, developing Mixed economy, mixed socialist market economy that incorporates economic planning through Industrial policy, industrial policies and strategic Five- ...

has caused increased trade and economic activity between China and Eastern South Asia. China is the largest trading partner of India, Bangladesh, and Nepal while

Hong Kong Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China ( abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a city and special administrative region of China on the eastern Pearl River Delt ...

is one of Bhutan's chief trading partners. The Indian economy has emerged as one of the world's fastest-growing economies although its eastern and northeastern states have had lower economic growth than northern, western, or southern India. According to the

International Monetary Fund The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a major financial agency of the United Nations, and an international financial institution, headquartered in Washington, D.C., consisting of 190 countries. Its stated mission is "working to foster globa ...

(IMF), the

Bangladeshi economy The economy of Bangladesh is a major economy of South Asia and a developing nation, developing market economy. — — —Siddiqi, Dina M. “Miracle Worker or Womanmachine? Tracking (Trans)National Realities in Bangladeshi Factories.” Econo ...

was the world's second-fastest-growing major economy in 2016, but the country faces challenges of political instability and infrastructure shortages. The 2017 China India border standoff developed on the Doklam plateau, located on the tri-nation border between Bhutan, Indian Sikkim, and Chinese Tibet.

Geography and climate

Bangladesh

The geography of Bangladesh is varied and has an area characterised by three distinct features: a broad deltaic plain subject to frequent flooding, elevated forested plateaus, and a small hilly region crossed by swiftly flowing rivers. The country has an area of and extends north to south and east to west. Bangladesh is bordered on the west, north, and east by a land frontier with India and, in the southeast, by a short land and water frontier ( with Burma (Myanmar). On the south is a highly irregular deltaic coastline of about , containing many parallel rivers and streams flowing into the Bay of Bengal. The territorial waters of Bangladesh extend , and the exclusive economic zone of the country is . Bangladesh has a

tropical monsoon climate An area of tropical monsoon climate (occasionally known as a sub-equatorial, tropical wet climate or a tropical monsoon and trade-wind littoral climate) is a tropical climate sub-type that corresponds to the Köppen climate classification category ...

. The Sundarbans in Bangladesh, which is shared with India, is a

UNESCO World Heritage Site A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...

Cox's Bazar Beach Cox's Bazar Beach ( bn, কক্সবাজার সমুদ্র সৈকত), located at Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh, is the longest natural sea beach in the world running and 5th longest beach af ...

is one of the world's longest beaches.

Bhutan

Bhutan is roughly the size of

Switzerland ). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...

. It is located on the southern slopes of the eastern Himalayas, landlocked between the Tibet Autonomous Region to the north and the Indian states of Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh to the west and south. The land consists mostly of steep and high mountains crisscrossed by a network of swift rivers, which form deep valleys before draining into the Indian plains. Elevation rises from in the southern foothills to more than . The highest peak in Bhutan is

Gangkhar Puensum Gangkhar Puensum ( dz, གངས་དཀར་སྤུན་གསུམ་, translit=Kangkar Punsum, alternatively, Gangkar Punsum or Gankar Punzum) is the highest mountain in Bhutan and the highest unclimbed mountain in the world, with an ele ...

at . The climate in Bhutan varies with elevation, from subtropical in the south to temperate in central areas and alpine in the north, with year-round snow in the north. Western Bhutan has the heavier monsoon rains; southern Bhutan has hot humid summers and cool winters.

India

East India

The bulk of the East India region lies on the

Indo-Gangetic plain The Indo-Gangetic Plain, also known as the North Indian River Plain, is a fertile plain encompassing northern regions of the Indian subcontinent, including most of northern and eastern India, around half of Pakistan, virtually all of Bangla ...

, with a coastline on the Bay of Bengal. It includes the states of

Bihar Bihar (; ) is a state in eastern India. It is the 2nd largest state by population in 2019, 12th largest by area of , and 14th largest by GDP in 2021. Bihar borders Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the northern part of West Be ...

Jharkhand Jharkhand (; ; ) is a state in eastern India. The state shares its border with the states of West Bengal to the east, Chhattisgarh to the west, Uttar Pradesh to the northwest, Bihar to the north and Odisha to the south. It has an area of . It ...

, and

Odisha Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of ...

. The region is bounded by

Sikkim Sikkim (; ) is a state in Northeastern India. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China in the north and northeast, Bhutan in the east, Province No. 1 of Nepal in the west and West Bengal in the south. Sikkim is also close to the Siligur ...

, and

in the north,

in the east, the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Chhattisgarh on the west, and the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh in the south. It is connected to the Seven Sister States of Northeast India by the narrow Siliguri Corridor. West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north, to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The region lies in the

humid Humidity is the concentration of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor, the gaseous state of water, is generally invisible to the human eye. Humidity indicates the likelihood for precipitation, dew, or fog to be present. Humidity depen ...

zone.

Northeast India

One horn Rhino in Kaziranga national park

The

region of Northeast India includes the states of

, and

. It has land borders with China, Myanmar, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. The region is usually categorised into the

and the Brahmaputra Valley, Brahmaputra and the Barak valley plains. Northeast India has a predominantly humid sub-tropical climate with hot, humid summers, severe monsoons, and mild winters. The region is covered by the mighty Brahmaputra–Barak river systems and their tributaries. Geographically, apart from the Brahmaputra, Barak, and Imphal valleys and some flat lands in between the hills of Meghalaya and Tripura, the remaining two-thirds of the area is hilly terrain interspersed with valleys and plains; the altitude varies from almost sea level to over above

mean sea level There are several kinds of mean in mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. ...

. The region's high rainfall, averaging around and above, creates problems of ecosystem, high seismic activity, and floods. The states of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim have a montane climate with cold, snowy winters and mild summers. Mount Everest as seen from Drukair2

Nepal

Nepal is the world's 93rd largest country. Nepal is commonly divided into three physiographic areas: mountain, hill, and southern lowland plains (the ''

Terai The Terai or Tarai is a lowland region in northern India and southern Nepal that lies south of the outer foothills of the Himalayas, the Sivalik Hills, and north of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. This lowland belt is characterised by tall grasslands, scr ...

''). These ecological belts run east–west and are vertically intersected by Nepal's major, north to south-flowing river system. The southern lowland plains bordering India are part of the northern rim of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Hill Region (Pahad) abuts the mountains and varies from in altitude with progression from subtropical climates below to alpine climates above . The Lower Himalayan Range reaching is the southern limit of this region, with subtropical river valleys and "hills" alternating to the north of this range. The Mountain Region (Himal), situated in the Great Himalayan Range, makes up the northern part of Nepal. It contains the highest elevations in the world, including eight of the ten highest mountains. The climate of Nepal includes

temperate In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...

, subalpine and

zones.

Demographics

Bangladesh

Bangladesh is the world's eighth most populous country, with a population of more than 160million.

Bengalis Bengalis (singular Bengali bn, বাঙ্গালী/বাঙালি ), also rendered as Bangalee or the Bengali people, are an Indo-Aryan peoples, Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the ...

are the largest ethnic group, with Bengali Muslim a majority, followed by

Bengali Buddhists Bengali Buddhists ( bn, বাঙালি বৌদ্ধ) are a religious subgroup of the Bengalis who adhere to or practice the religion of Buddhism. Bengali Buddhist people mainly live in Bangladesh and Indian states West Bengal and Tripura. ...

Bengali Christians Bengali Christians ( bn, বাঙালি খ্রিস্টান) are adherents of Christianity among the Bengali people. Christianity took root in Bengal after the arrival of Portuguese voyagers in the 16th century. It witnessed furthe ...

and

Chakma Chakma may refer to: *Chakma people, a Tibeto-Burman people of Bangladesh and Northeast India *Chakma language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them **Chakma script ***Chakma (Unicode block) Chakma is a Unicode block containing characters for ...

. The country has a significant

Urdu Urdu (;"Urdu"
''

indigenous ethnic groups and Anglo Indian. The

Bengali language Bengali ( ), generally known by its endonym Bangla (, ), is an Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan language native to the Bengal region of South Asia. It is the official, national, and most widely spoken language of Bangladesh and the second m ...

is the

official language An official language is a language given supreme status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically the term "official language" does not refer to the language used by a people or country, but by its government (e.g. judiciary, ...

Dhaka Dhaka ( or ; bn, ঢাকা, Ḍhākā, ), formerly known as Dacca, is the capital and largest city of Bangladesh, as well as the world's largest Bengali-speaking city. It is the eighth largest and sixth most densely populated city ...

Chittagong Chittagong ( /ˈtʃɪt əˌɡɒŋ/ ''chit-uh-gong''; ctg, চিটাং; bn, চিটাগং), officially Chattogram ( bn, চট্টগ্রাম), is the second-largest city in Bangladesh after Dhaka and third largest city in B ...

Khulna Khulna ( bn, খুলনা, ) is the third-largest city in Bangladesh, after Dhaka and Chittagong. It is the administrative centre of Khulna District and Khulna Division. Khulna's economy is the third-largest in Bangladesh, contributing $53 b ...

Sylhet Sylhet ( bn, সিলেট) is a metropolitan city in northeastern Bangladesh. It is the administrative seat of the Sylhet Division. Located on the north bank of the Surma River at the eastern tip of Bengal, Sylhet has a subtropical climate an ...

, and Rajshahi are among the country's largest cities and towns. Bangladesh's

life expectancy Life expectancy is a statistical measure of the average time an organism is expected to live, based on the year of its birth, current age, and other demographic factors like sex. The most commonly used measure is life expectancy at birth ...

is ranked third in South Asia.

Bhutan

Bhutan has the second-smallest population in South Asia after the

Maldives Maldives (, ; dv, ދިވެހިރާއްޖެ, translit=Dhivehi Raajje, ), officially the Republic of Maldives ( dv, ދިވެހިރާއްޖޭގެ ޖުމްހޫރިއްޔާ, translit=Dhivehi Raajjeyge Jumhooriyyaa, label=none, ), is an archipelag ...

. Bhutan's three main ethnic groups are the Ngalop, Sharchop, and Lhotshampa. The state religion is

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...

. The official language is

Dzongkha Dzongkha (; ) is a Sino-Tibetan language that is the official and national language of Bhutan. It is written using the Tibetan script. The word means "the language of the fortress", from ' "fortress" and ' "language". , Dzongkha had 171,080 n ...

. Bhutan has a significant Nepali-speaking minority.

Thimphu Thimphu (; dz, ཐིམ་ཕུག ) is the capital city, capital and largest city of Bhutan. It is situated in the western central part of Bhutan, and the surrounding valley is one of Bhutan's ''dzongkhags'', the Thimphu District. The ancient ...

and Phuntsholing are the largest cities.

India

With an estimated population of 226million,

has a multi-lingual and multi-ethnic Indo-Aryan population.

Kolkata Kolkata (, or , ; also known as Calcutta , the official name until 2001) is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal, on the eastern bank of the Hooghly River west of the border with Bangladesh. It is the primary business, comme ...

Patna Patna ( ), historically known as Pataliputra, is the capital and largest city of the state of Bihar in India. According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Patna had a population of 2.35 million, making it the 19th largest city in India. ...

Asansol Asansol is a (Tier-II) metropolitan city in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is the second largest and most populated city of West Bengal and the 33rd largest urban agglomeration in India. Asansol is the district headquarters of Paschim Bar ...

Durgapur Durgapur () is a planned tier-II urban agglomeration and a major industrial city in Paschim Bardhaman district in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is the fourth largest urban agglomeration after Kolkata, Asansol and Siliguri in West Bengal ...

Bhubaneshwar Bhubaneswar (; ) is the capital and largest city of the States and territories of India, Indian state of Odisha. The region, especially the old town, was historically often depicted as ''Ekamra Kshetra'' (area (''kshetra'') adorned with mango tr ...

Siliguri Siliguri, ) is a major tier-II city in West Bengal. It forms twin cities, "Twin Cities" with the neighboring district capital of Jalpaiguri. The city spans areas of the Darjeeling district, Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts in the Indian sta ...

and

Darjeeling Darjeeling (, , ) is a town and municipality in the northernmost region of the Indian state of West Bengal. Located in the Eastern Himalayas, it has an average elevation of . To the west of Darjeeling lies the easternmost province of Nepal, ...

are among the area's largest cities.

Northeast India , native_name_lang = mni , settlement_type = , image_skyline = , image_alt = , image_caption = , motto = , image_map = Northeast india.png , ...

has a population of 45million. It has a multi-ethnic Tibeto-Burman and Austric population, except in Bengali-majority Tripura.

Guwahati Guwahati (, ; formerly rendered Gauhati, ) is the biggest city of the Indian state of Assam and also the largest metropolis in northeastern India. Dispur, the capital of Assam, is in the circuit city region located within Guwahati and is the ...

Agartala Agartala () is the capital city of the Indian state of Tripura, and is one of the largest cities in northeast India. The city is governed by the Agartala Municipal Corporation. The city is the seat of the Government of Tripura. It is located on ...

Imphal Imphal ( Meitei pronunciation: /im.pʰal/; English pronunciation: ) is the capital city of the Indian state of Manipur. The metropolitan centre of the city contains the ruins of Kangla Palace (also known as Kangla Fort), the royal seat of the fo ...

Aizawl Aizawl (; Mizo: ) is the capital of the state of Mizoram in India. Aizawl was officially established on 25 February 1890. With a population of 293,416, it is the largest city in the state. It is also the centre of administration containing all ...

, and

Gangtok Gangtok is a city, municipality, the capital and the largest populated place of the Indian state of Sikkim. It is also the headquarters of the East Sikkim district, Gangtok District. Gangtok is in the eastern Himalayas, Himalayan range, at an e ...

are the major towns and cities.

Hindi Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been de ...

and English are the federal official languages of India while most states also have their own official language.

Nepal

Nepal has a population of 25 million, which is the world's 41st largest. Nepal is a multiethnic Himalayan nation with

Nepali Nepali or Nepalese may refer to : Concerning Nepal * Anything of, from, or related to Nepal * Nepali people, citizens of Nepal * Nepali language, an Indo-Aryan language found in Nepal, the current official national language and a language spoken ...

as the official language.

Economy

Bangladesh

Listed as one of the Next Eleven, the

economy of Bangladesh The economy of Bangladesh is a major economy of South Asia and a developing market economy. — — —Siddiqi, Dina M. “Miracle Worker or Womanmachine? Tracking (Trans)National Realities in Bangladeshi Factories.” Economic and Political ...

ranks 39th in terms of nominal gross domestic product (GDP) and 29th in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP). In the fiscal year 2018–2019, Bangladesh registered exports worth US$40.53 billion and imports worth US$55.44 billion. Its major trading partners include the

European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...

, the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...

Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...

Malaysia Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...

, and

Singapore Singapore (), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a sovereign island country and city-state in maritime Southeast Asia. It lies about one degree of latitude () north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, borde ...

. The Port of Chittagong is Bangladesh's busiest port, as well as the busiest in Eastern South Asia. Bangladesh's chief export is

textiles Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not the ...

. It is the world's second-largest textile exporter after China. It is largely self-sufficient in

pharmaceuticals A medication (also called medicament, medicine, pharmaceutical drug, medicinal drug or simply drug) is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy (pharmacotherapy) is an important part of the medical field and rel ...

, shipbuilding, steel rods, ceramics, glass,

food Food is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is inge ...

, and numerous other sectors. Bangladesh has significant

natural gas Natural gas (also called fossil gas or simply gas) is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons consisting primarily of methane in addition to various smaller amounts of other higher alkanes. Low levels of trace gases like carbo ...

, limestone, and coal reserves. The

jute trade The jute trade is centered mainly around India's West Bengal and Assam, and Bangladesh. The major producing country of jute is India and biggest exporter being Bangladesh, due to their natural fertile soil. Production of jute by India and Bangl ...

has been historically important. Bangladesh's financial sector is one of the largest in South Asia along with those of India and Pakistan. The Dhaka Stock Exchange and Chittagong Stock Exchange are its principal capital markets. Bangladesh has the second-largest foreign exchange reserves in South Asia. Its credit rating is also the second-best in the region after India. The

Nepal Bangladesh Bank Nepal Bangladesh Bank Ltd. ( ne, नेपाल बाङ्लादेश बैंक) also known as NBB ( ne, एन.बी.बी.) or NB Bank was a public owned commercial bank in Nepal. It was established in June 1994 with an authorized c ...

was set up by Bangladesh's

IFIC Bank govt shaere:35% The International Finance Investment and Commerce Bank Limited is a first generation Bangladeshi private commercial bank. The bank is ensuring cutting edge service with skilled workforce and revolutionary fintech support through m ...

in neighboring Nepal.

Bhutan

The

economy of Bhutan The economy of Bhutan is based on agriculture and forestry, which provide the main livelihood for more than 60% of the population. Agriculture consists largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Rugged mountains dominate the terrain a ...

is notable for its

ferroalloy Ferroalloy refers to various alloys of iron with a high proportion of one or more other elements such as manganese (Mn), aluminium (Al), or silicon (Si). They are used in the production of steels and alloys. The alloys impart distinctive qualitie ...

apple An apple is an edible fruit produced by an apple tree (''Malus domestica''). Apple fruit tree, trees are agriculture, cultivated worldwide and are the most widely grown species in the genus ''Malus''. The tree originated in Central Asia, wh ...

s, red rice, construction materials, and

tourism Tourism is travel for pleasure or business; also the theory and practice of touring (disambiguation), touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tour (disambiguation), tours. Th ...

sectors. Bhutan's main trading partners are India, Bangladesh,

Thailand Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...

and

South Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and sharing a Korean Demilitarized Zone, land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed ...

. Phuntsholing is Bhutan's financial center. The

Royal Securities Exchange of Bhutan The Royal Securities Exchange of Bhutan is the only stock exchange in Bhutan Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eas ...

is the main stock exchange. The

Bank of Bhutan Bank of Bhutan (BoB) is the largest and oldest commercial bank in Bhutan. It was established under the provision of the royal charter of May 1968. It was also the only central bank before the Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan in 1982. It is regi ...

and the Bhutan National Bank are the largest financial institutions. The SAARC Development Fund is based in

. Bhutan ranks first in economic freedom and

ease of doing business The ease of doing business index was an index created jointly by Simeon Djankov, Michael Klein, and Caralee McLiesh, three leading economists at the World Bank Group. The academic research for the report was done jointly with professors Edward Gl ...

, is second in

per capita income Per capita income (PCI) or total income measures the average income earned per person in a given area (city, region, country, etc.) in a specified year. It is calculated by dividing the area's total income by its total population. Per capita i ...

, and is the least corrupt country in South Asia.

India

East India's

and

states have rich mineral deposits. East India is also notable for Darjeeling tea. Northeast India has one of the world's oldest

petroleum Petroleum, also known as crude oil, or simply oil, is a naturally occurring yellowish-black liquid mixture of mainly hydrocarbons, and is found in geological formations. The name ''petroleum'' covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crud ...

and

tea Tea is an aromatic beverage prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured or fresh leaves of '' Camellia sinensis'', an evergreen shrub native to East Asia which probably originated in the borderlands of southwestern China and northe ...

industries. Tourism is also important for the region's economy. Kolkata is the principal financial center of eastern and northeastern India, being home to the

Calcutta Stock Exchange The Calcutta Stock Exchange (CSE), located at the Lyons Range, Kolkata, India, is a stock exchange under the ownership of Ministry of Finance, Government of India. It is the second oldest stock exchange in Asia. It was founded on 1 December 186 ...

. The Port of Kolkata is the region's principal gateway and is also used by Nepal and Bhutan. The port of Haldia is a hub of heavy industry. The Guwahati Tea Auction Centre is important for the region's tea industry.

Jute Jute is a long, soft, shiny bast fiber that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. It is produced from flowering plants in the genus ''Corchorus'', which is in the mallow family Malvaceae. The primary source of the fiber is ''Corchorus olit ...

is a major crop, as in neighboring Bangladesh. A cross-border conveyor belt carries limestone from mines in

, India, to Sylhet Division, Bangladesh, to supply a

Lafarge La Farge, LaFarge or Lafarge can refer to: People * Antoinette LaFarge (1966–), American artist and writer * Christopher Grant LaFarge (1862–1938), American architect and partner in the firm Heins & LaFarge * Christopher Grant La Farge ( ...

cement plant.

Nepal

While Kathmandu is Nepal's main commercial center, most of the country's industries are located along the southern border with India. The economy of Nepal relies heavily on

agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to ...

, food processing, metal production,

remittance A remittance is a non-commercial transfer of money by a foreign worker, a member of a diaspora community, or a citizen with familial ties abroad, for household income in their home country or homeland. Money sent home by migrants competes wit ...

s, carpet making, and textile manufacturing. Nepal's principal trading partners are India, the United States, and China.

Binod Chaudhary Binod Chaudhary ( ne, विनोद चौधरी; born 14 April 1955) is a Nepalese billionaire businessman, politician and philanthropist. He is the chairman and president of the Chaudhary Group (CG). In February 2013, he was recognised ...

is Nepal's sole ''Forbes''-listed

billionaire A billionaire is a person with a net worth of at least one billion (1,000,000,000, i.e., a thousand million) units of a given currency, usually of a major currency such as the United States dollar, euro, or pound sterling. The American busin ...

Economic history

The taka introduced by Muslims is the historical currency of

Bengal Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...

, Nepal, and Tibet.

Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...

and

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

traders frequented the region for centuries. One branch of the ancient

Silk Road The Silk Road () was a network of Eurasian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles), it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and reli ...

ran between Tibet, Sikkim, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bengal. The

Lhasa Newar Lhasa Newar (alternate name: Lhasa Newah) () refers to the expatriate Newar traders and artisans who traveled between the Kathmandu Valley and Tibet from centuries ago. These Nepalis, Nepalese merchants conducted trade between Nepal, Tibet and Ben ...

merchants were active on the trade route until the Chinese takeover of Tibet in the 1950s. The

Kathmandu Valley The Kathmandu Valley ( ne, काठमाडौं उपत्यका; also known as the Nepal Valley or Nepa Valley ( ne, नेपाः उपत्यका, Nepal Bhasa: 𑐣𑐾𑐥𑐵𑑅 𑐐𑐵𑑅, नेपाः गाः)), ...

's early prosperity was due to these merchants. Another branch of the Silk Road connected Bengal with China through Burma and

Yunnan Yunnan , () is a landlocked Provinces of China, province in Southwest China, the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is ...

. This route is also known as the

Tea Horse Road The Tea Horse Road or ''chamadao'' (), now generally referred to as the Ancient Tea Horse Road or ''chamagudao'' () was a network of caravan paths winding through the mountains of Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet in Southwest China. This was also a tea t ...

. The Grand Trunk Road has its eastern terminus in Bengal. The seaports of Bengal were part of Indian Ocean trade networks with Africa and East Asia. In the 15thcentury, the Sultan of Bengal shipped a giraffe from Somalia and sent it to China as a gift for the Ming emperor. In the 17thcentury, Mughal Bengal generated 50% of India's GDP due to its worldwide

muslin Muslin () is a cotton fabric of plain weave. It is made in a wide range of weights from delicate sheers to coarse sheeting. It gets its name from the city of Mosul, Iraq, where it was first manufactured. Muslin of uncommonly delicate handsp ...

and

silk Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the coc ...

exports. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to establish trading posts in the region. By the 18thcentury, Bengal attracted Dutch, French, Armenian, Danish, Greek, and British traders.

Political and legal systems

Bangladesh

G7 members and Guest Invitees group photo

Bangladesh is a

unitary state A unitary state is a sovereign state governed as a single entity in which the central government is the supreme authority. The central government may create (or abolish) administrative divisions (sub-national units). Such units exercise only th ...

and a

parliamentary republic A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number ...

. The Jatiyo Sangshad is its unicameral legislature. The President of Bangladesh is the ceremonial head of state, and the

Prime Minister of Bangladesh The Prime Minister of Bangladesh ( bn, বাংলাদেশের প্রধানমন্ত্রী, translit=Bangladesher Prodhanmontri), officially Prime Minister of the People's Republic of Bangladesh ( bn, গণপ্রজা� ...

is the head of government. The legal system of Bangladesh is based on English common law and Muslim, Hindu, and Christian personal

religious law Religious law includes ethical and moral codes taught by religious traditions. Different religious systems hold sacred law in a greater or lesser degree of importance to their belief systems, with some being explicitly antinomian whereas others ...

s. The Supreme Court of Bangladesh has wide powers for

judicial review Judicial review is a process under which executive, legislative and administrative actions are subject to review by the judiciary. A court with authority for judicial review may invalidate laws, acts and governmental actions that are incompat ...

. Fundamental rights are enshrined in the country's constitution, but the human rights situation faces challenges. Bangladesh ranks first in

gender equality Gender equality, also known as sexual equality or equality of the sexes, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making; and the state of valuing d ...

in South Asia.

Bhutan

Bhutan is a

constitutional monarchy A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in decision making. Constitutional monarchies dif ...

headed by the King of Bhutan. Bhutan is a

parliamentary democracy A parliamentary system, or parliamentarian democracy, is a system of democratic governance of a state (or subordinate entity) where the executive derives its democratic legitimacy from its ability to command the support ("confidence") of the ...

, with an elected

bicameral Bicameralism is a type of legislature, one divided into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses, known as a bicameral legislature. Bicameralism is distinguished from unicameralism, in which all members deliberate and vote as a single grou ...

legislature A legislature is an assembly with the authority to make law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its p ...

. The Prime Minister of Bhutan is the head of government. The legal system of Bhutan is a mixture of the semi-theocratic

Tsa Yig The Cha Yig () is any monastic constitution or code of moral discipline based on codified Tibetan Buddhist precepts. Every Tibetan monastery and convent had its own Cha Yig, and the variation in Cha Yig content shows a degree of autonomy and inter ...

code and English common law influences. Capital punishment was abolished in Bhutan in 2004.

India

India is a federal republic, federal

. While the Indian federal government is headed by the ceremonial President of India and executive Prime Minister of India, the states of India are headed by a ceremonial governor and executive chief minister. Indian legislatures include the bicameral national parliament and numerous unicameral and bicameral state legislatures. The federal government can impose President's rule in the states. Indian states are not permitted to develop relations with foreign countries, including neighboring countries within Eastern South Asia unless it is strictly overseen by the heavily bureaucratic federal government. The Law of India, Indian legal system is a mixture of English common law, civil law, custom laws, and religious laws. The Supreme Court of India has a notable history of judicial activism. Fundamental rights in India, Fundamental rights are enshrined in India's Constitution of India, constitution. Despite India's democratic framework, much of northeast India is under the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, which has been described as "draconian". Human rights abuses in Manipur have been a challenge.

Nepal

Nepal is a federal republic. The President of Nepal is the head of state. The Prime Minister of Nepal's role as head of government has been in place for over a century. Nepal has a bicameral parliament. The country continues to transition from a monarchy to a republic. Nepal's legal system is historically based on Hindu law but has incorporated influences from English law and other legal systems since modernization began in the country in the 1950s. Nepal has seen secularization since the republic was proclaimed in 2008. Capital punishment has been abolished. Nepal ranked 63rd on the 2016 Rule of Law Index compiled by the World Justice Project, which was higher than India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.

Armed forces

Bangladesh

The Bangladesh Armed Forces are the third-largest in South Asia and include the Bangladesh Army, Bangladesh Navy, and Bangladesh Air Force. Bangladesh is a leading contributor of UN peacekeeping forces. Bangladesh's main defense partners are the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, and China. Bangladesh's military was responsible for several Military coups in Bangladesh, coups in the 1970s and 1980s.

Bhutan

The Royal Bhutan Army is Bhutan's principal defense force. It has an extensive partnership with the armed forces of neighboring India that includes training and logistics. The Royal Bhutan Army is responsible for monitoring Bhutan's disputed northern border with China.

India

The Eastern Command (India), Indian Eastern Command is responsible for the country's security interests in the Eastern South Asia region. The Indian Armed Forces is the world's third-largest military force. It includes the Indian Army, Indian Navy, and Indian Air Force. The Indian military is the foremost regional military in South Asia. India is a declared nuclear weapons state. India's main defense suppliers include Russia, the United States, and Israel.

Nepal

The Nepal Army is responsible for landlocked Nepal's national security. It includes the Nepalese Army Air Service. Nepal's military has historically enjoyed a close association with the British armed forces due to the recruitment of Gurkhas. Nepal is a consistent contributor to UN peacekeeping operations.

Regional economic integration

BBIN Motor Vehicle Agreement

In 2015, the Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal, BBIN countries signed an agreement to allow their vehicles (carrying both cargo and passengers) to travel between the countries with an electronic permit. Once implemented, the agreement is expected to replace transshipment costs with cheaper direct transit. However, its implementation has been forestalled by the failure of Bhutan's National Council of Bhutan, upper house to ratify the agreement, even though Bangladesh, India and Nepal have ratified. Bhutanese opponents argue that allowing foreign vehicles within the country would pollute its natural environment. In 2018, it was reported that Bangladesh, India and Nepal could move forward with implementation without Bhutan.

Bangladesh transit

Prior to the partition of British India, a regime of freedom of trade and transport existed in the region, including free ports in Calcutta, Port of Narayanganj, Narayanganj and Chittagong. The Eastern Bengal Railway and Assam Bengal Railway were vital transport arteries. Cross border transport continued after partition of Bengal in 1947. In 1963, an agreement between Nepal and Pakistan allowed free trade and transit through the port of Chittagong in

. However, cross border railway, bus and water transport became indefinitely suspended after the Indo-Pakistan War of 1965. After the independence of East Pakistan, Nepal signed a Transit Agreement with Bangladesh in 1976, even though cross border transport through India remained suspended since 1965. In 2010, a Joint Declaration by the Prime Ministers of Bangladesh and India pledged to establish a transit regime for landlocked

Northeast India , native_name_lang = mni , settlement_type = , image_skyline = , image_alt = , image_caption = , motto = , image_map = Northeast india.png , ...

, Nepal and Bhutan through Bangladeshi territory. The proposed transit is focused on international seaports in Port of Chittagong, Chittagong and Port of Mongla, Mongla, as well as the Bangladesh Railway and List of rivers in Bangladesh, inland waterways. In 2016, the prime ministers of Nepal and India agreed in principle on the prospect of freedom of transit. In 2017, a joint statement by the prime ministers of Bangladesh and Bhutan also affirmed the principle of freedom of transit. In 2016, the first Indian ship made transit through Bangladesh while traveling between West Bengal and Tripura. The Port of Ashuganj was officially declared a port of call. In 2017, the World Bank announced a US$150 million financing agreement for improving infrastructure to develop a transit regime. The International Road Transport Union has called for a singular customs system in the region.

Internet connectivity

Northeast Indian states import internet bandwidth (computing), bandwidth by using the Bangladeshi submarine cable in the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh also plans to export internet bandwidth to Bhutan. Nepal imports internet bandwidth from both India and China.

Hydropower

Bhutan exports electricity to India from four major hydroelectric facilities. Bhutan, Nepal and India plan to export electricity to Bangladesh.

Visa free travel

India enjoys a visa free travel regime with Nepal and Bhutan. Bangladesh enjoys a visa free regime with Bhutan and its citizens get a visa on arrival in Nepal. However, visa requirements still exist between India and Bangladesh and between Nepal and Bhutan.

Water sharing

There are numerous transboundary rivers in the region, which has been a cause of water sharing disputes. Bangladesh and India share 54 transboundary rivers, but they do not have a comprehensive river management treaty. There has also been criticism of India's existing water sharing and hydropower agreements with Nepal and Bhutan. Bangladesh and India are also concerned by Chinese efforts to dam the Brahmaputra River.

References

{{Foreign relations of Nepal regions of Asia South Asia Regions of Eurasia Geography of India Geography of Bangladesh Geography of Nepal Geography of Bhutan

History

Archaeology

Old kingdoms

Bengal Presidency

Partition of Bengal

Himalayan states

Indian northeast

21st century

Geography and climate

Bangladesh

Bhutan

India

East India

Northeast India

Nepal

Demographics

Bangladesh

Bhutan

India

Nepal

Economy

Bangladesh

Bhutan

India

Nepal

Economic history

Political and legal systems

Bangladesh

Bhutan

India

Nepal

Armed forces

Bangladesh

Bhutan

India

Nepal

Regional economic integration

BBIN Motor Vehicle Agreement

Bangladesh transit

Internet connectivity

Hydropower

Visa free travel

Water sharing

See also

References