Since the division of Korea after the end of World War II, North Koreans have fled from the country in spite of legal punishment for political, ideological, religious, economic, moral, personal, or nutritional reasons. Such North Koreans are referred to as North Korean defectors by the North Korean regime. Alternative terms in South Korea, where the defectors often end up, include "northern

refugee A refugee, conventionally speaking, is a displaced person who has crossed national borders and who cannot or is unwilling to return home due to well-founded fear of persecution.

s" ( ko, 탈북자, ''talbukja'' or , ''talbukmin'') and "new settlers" (, ''saeteomin''). During the North Korean famine of the 1990s, there was an increase in defections, reaching a peak in 1998 and 1999. Some of the main reasons for the falling number of defectors, especially since 2000, are the strict border patrols and inspections, forced deportations, and the rising cost of defection. The most common strategy of North Korean defectors is to cross the Chinese border into Jilin and

Liaoning Liaoning () is a coastal province in Northeast China that is the smallest, southernmost, and most populous province in the region. With its capital at Shenyang, it is located on the northern shore of the Yellow Sea, and is the northernmost ...

provinces in northeast China. About 76% to 84% of defectors interviewed in

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...

or South Korea came from the Northeastern provinces bordering China. The defectors usually flee to a third country due to China being a relatively close ally of North Korea. China, being the most influential of the few economic partners of North Korea while the country has been under U.N. sanctions for decades, is also the largest, and has been a continuous aid source of the country. To avoid worsening the already tense relations with the Korean Peninsula, China refuses to grant North Korean defectors

refugee A refugee, conventionally speaking, is a displaced person who has crossed national borders and who cannot or is unwilling to return home due to well-founded fear of persecution.

status and considers them illegal economic migrants. If the defectors are caught in China, they are repatriated back to North Korea, where rights groups say they often face harsh interrogations and years of punishment, or even death, in ''kwalliso'' prison camps (such as the Pukch'ang camp), or in ''kyohwaso'' reeducation camps (such as the Chungsan camp or Chongo-ri camp).

Terms

Different terms, official and unofficial, refer to North Korean

refugee A refugee, conventionally speaking, is a displaced person who has crossed national borders and who cannot or is unwilling to return home due to well-founded fear of persecution.

s. On 9 January 2005, the South Korean Ministry of Unification announced the use of ''saeteomin'' (, "people of new land") instead of ''talbukja'' (, "people who fled the North"), a term about which North Korean officials expressed displeasure. A newer term is ''bukhanitaljumin'' (), which has the more forceful meaning of "residents who renounced North Korea". North Korean expert Andrei Lankov has criticized the term "

defectors In politics, a defector is a person who gives up allegiance to one state in exchange for allegiance to another, changing sides in a way which is considered illegitimate by the first state. More broadly, defection involves abandoning a person, ca ...

", since most people fleeing the country do not seek refuge because of

political dissent Political dissent is a dissatisfaction with or opposition to the policies of a governing body. Expressions of dissent may take forms from vocal disagreement to civil disobedience to the use of violence.material deprivation.

Demographics

Since 1953, 100,000–300,000 North Koreans have defected, most of whom have fled to Russia or China. 1,418 were registered as arriving in South Korea in 2016. In 2017, there were 31,093 defectors registered with the Unification Ministry in South Korea, 71% of whom were women. In 2018, the numbers had been dramatically dropping since Kim Jong-un took power in 2011, trending towards less than a thousand per year, down from the peak of 2,914 in 2009. Professor Courtland Robinson of the Bloomberg School of Public Health at Johns Hopkins University estimated that in the past the total number of 6,824 and 7,829 children were born to North Korean women in the three Northeastern Provinces of China. Recently, survey results conducted in 2013 by Johns Hopkins and the Korea Institute for National Unification (also known as KINU) showed that there were about 8,708 North Korean defectors and 15,675 North Korean children in China's same three Northeastern Provinces which are Jilin, Liaoning and Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture. Most North Korean refugees reportedly leave the country due to economic reasons. Based on a study of North Korean defectors, women make up the majority of defections. In 2002, they comprised 56% of defections to South Korea (1,138 people), and by 2011, the number had grown to 71% (2,706 people). More women leave the North because they are more likely to suffer financial hardships. This is due to the prevalence of women in service sector jobs whereas men are employed in the military. According to South Korean government data, 45% of defectors cited economic reasons for defecting. According to

NK News NK News is an American subscription-based news website that provides stories and analysis about North Korea. Established in 2011, it is headquartered in Seoul, South Korea with reporters in Washington, D.C. and London. Reporting is based on infor ...

, men had a higher tendency to leave the country due to political, ideological or surveillance pressure. In the first half of 2018, women made up 88% of defectors to the South.

By destination

South Korea

South Korea's Ministry of Unification is a government organization that is in charge of preparing for a future reunification between North and South Korea. It is responsible for north–south relations including economic trade, diplomacy, and communication, and education of reunification, which involves spreading awareness in schools and among the public sphere. The Ministry of Unification is thus the main organization that manages North Korean defectors in South Korean territory by establishing admission processes and resettlement policies. It also has regional sub-organs called Hana Centers that help defectors in their day-to-day life for a more smooth transition into South Korean society. The number of defectors since the 1950–1953 Korean War is more than 26,000. Military defections across the heavily fortified demilitarized zone (DMZ) are few in number, with only 20 defectors since 1996.

Reward

In 1962, the

South Korean Government The Government of South Korea is the union government of the South Korea, Republic of Korea, created by the Constitution of South Korea as the executive, legislative and judicial authority of the republic. The president acts as the head of sta ...

introduced the "Special law on the protection of defectors from the North" which, after revision in 1978, remained effective until 1993. According to the law, every defector was eligible for an aid package. After their arrival in the South, defectors would receive an allowance. The size of this allowance depended on the category to which the particular defector belonged (there were three such categories). The category was determined by the defector's political and intelligence value. Apart from this allowance, defectors who delivered especially valuable intelligence or equipment were given large additional rewards. Prior to 1997 the payments had been fixed in gold bullion, not in

South Korean won The Korean Republic won, unofficially the South Korean won ( Symbol: ₩; Code: KRW; Korean: 대한민국 원) is the official currency of South Korea. A single won is divided into 100 jeon, the monetary subunit. The jeon is no longer used f ...

—in attempts to counter ingrained distrust about the reliability of paper money. In 2004, South Korea passed controversial new measures intended to slow the flow of asylum seekers because of concern that a growing number of North Koreans crossing the Amnok and Duman Rivers into China would soon seek refuge in the South. The regulations tighten defector screening processes and slash the amount of money given to each refugee from ₩28,000,000 ($24,180) to ₩10,000,000 ($8,636). South Korean officials say the new rules are intended to prevent ethnic Koreans living in China from entering the South, as well as stop North Koreans with criminal records from gaining entry. As of 2006, the state provided some defectors with apartments, and all those who wished to study were granted the right to enter a university of their choice. For a period of time after their arrival, defectors were also provided with personal bodyguards. In 2016, defectors past retirement age received Basic Livelihood Benefits of about ₩450,000 ($390) per month, which covered basic necessities, but left them amongst the poorest of retirees. In 2021, the Ministry of Unification described the support package for defectors as: *12 weeks of adaptation training *$6,000 to $32,400 of settlement benefits, depending on size of household *$13,300 to $19,100 housing subsidy *Free education in public schools and universities Defectors who are willing to condemn the north and are able to provide information that is helpful to the United States and South Korean forces are offered ₩1,000,000,000 (equivalent to approximately $870,000 USD).

Resettlement

According to the Ministry of Unification, over 33,000 North Korean refugees have resettled in South Korea in the year 2019. North Korean refugees arriving in the South first face joint interrogation by authorities having jurisdiction including the National Intelligence Service and the National Police Agency to ensure that they are not spies. They are then sent to

Hanawon The Settlement Support Center for North Korean Refugees (), commonly known as Hanawon (하나원, "House of Unity"), is a South Korean facility for the “training for social adaptation” of North Korean defectors, preparing them for life in the S ...

, a government resettlement center where they are provided a 12-week social adaptation mandatory course, mainly focused on economic and political education and job training. After three months of resettlement training, the government provides assistance in residence, employment, and health insurance. However, apart from these essential trainings for social adaptation, psychological needs such as mitigating traumatic experiences and vulnerable mental health statuses are not appropriately addressed. There are also non-profit and non-governmental organizations that seek to make the sociocultural transition easier and more efficient for the refugees. One such organization,

Saejowi Saejowi (hangul: 새조위), also known as Saejowi Initiative for National Integration (hangul: 새롭고 하나된 조국을 위한 모임), operates in Seoul, South Korea, as a nongovernmental organization (NGO) that assists North Korean defect ...

, provides defectors with medical assistance as well as an education in diverse topics ranging from leadership and counseling techniques to sexual violence prevention and avoidance. Another organization,

PSCORE People for Successful Corean Reunification (PSCORE) is a non-governmental organization based in Seoul, South Korea, and Washington D.C. in the United States. PSCORE addresses potential barriers to Korea reunification, suggests alternatives, and ...

, runs education programs for refugees, providing weekly English classes and one-on-one tutoring. Children can attend local South Korean schools or specific schools for North Korean refugee children. At South Korean school they may suffer discrimination and cruelty from other children, but the refugee schools do not prepare them well for South Korean society. North Korean students generally fall behind South Korean peers academically. Until up to age 35, they can go to graduate college without paying any fees. In 2021, 56% of defectors had a low income. Nearly 25% were in the lowest income bracket so they were given national basic livelihood subsidies, which are six times the proportion in the general South Korean population.

Statistics

Results of a survey conducted by the North Korean Refugees Foundation show that approximately 71% of North Koreans to have defected to South Korea since about 1998 are female. The percentage of female defectors has risen from 56% in 2002 to a high of 85% in 2018. As of February 2014, age demographic of North Korean defectors show that 4% were ages 0–9, 12% were ages 10–19, 58% were ages 20–39, 21% were ages 40–59, and 4% were over 60. More than 50% of defectors come from

North Hamgyong Province North Hamgyong Province (Hamgyŏngbukdo, ) is the northernmost province of North Korea. The province was formed in 1896 from the northern half of the former Hamgyong Province. Geography The province is bordered by China (Jilin) on the north, S ...

. The employment status of defectors before leaving North Korea was 2% held administrative jobs, 3% were soldiers (all able-bodied persons are required to serve 7–10 years in the military), 38% were "workers", 48% were unemployed or being supported by someone else, 4% were "service", 1% worked in arts or sports, and 2% worked as "professionals".

Discrimination

According to a poll by the National Human Rights Commission of Korea, around 50% of defectors said they had experienced discrimination because of their background. The two major issues were their inability to afford medical care and poor working conditions. Many complained of disrespectful treatment by journalists. According to the World Institute for North Korea Studies, a young female defector who does not attend a university has little chance of making a living in the South.

Mental health

North Korean refugees who resettle in South Korea have been exposed to various forms of traumatic experiences in their home countries before migration. 49–81% of adult North Korean refugees have reported to experiencing or witnessing at least one type of traumatic event, directly and/or indirectly. These events include witnessing public executions, starvation, torture, and being sent to a correctional facility. Moreover, during migration, they are subjected to additional trauma through multiple relocations before arriving in South Korea. Once resettled, many experience acculturation stress that includes homesickness, cultural shock, alienation, perceived discrimination, and feelings of marginalization. As a consequence, in a survey of over 24,000 of North Koreans who migrated to South Korea between August and December 2012, 607 identified as suffering from depression, anxiety, or

suicidal ideation Suicidal ideation, or suicidal thoughts, means having thoughts, ideas, or ruminations about the possibility of ending one's own life.World Health Organization, ''ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics'', ver. 09/2020MB26.A Suicidal ideatio ...

. Moreover, North Korean refugees exhibit post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms which are not addressed properly through governmental agencies. A study of 182 defectors has shown that, due to mutual mistrust between North and South Koreans, defectors are often unable to receive medical help. With limited government-sponsored programs for migrants, North Koreans face vocational, medical, and educational difficulties assimilating in South Korea and rely on

nongovernmental organization A non-governmental organization (NGO) or non-governmental organisation (see spelling differences) is an organization that generally is formed independent from government. They are typically nonprofit entities, and many of them are active in h ...

s. Intergovernmental organizations such as the United Nations have repeatedly urged recipient nations of North Korean defectors to better identify defectors who are at high risk for poor mental health and to provide them with appropriate medical and social support. About 15% of North Korean refugees say they have suicidal thoughts, compared to 5% for South Koreans overall.

Identity politics

Identity politics play a monumental factor in the cultural division among North and South Koreans. Contrary to the popular belief of outside nations, South Koreans and North Koreans share the same sense of nationalism and patriotism; however, most South Koreans harbour negative attitudes towards their Northern neighbors. In 2010, the Korean General Social Survey (KGSS) conducted face-to-face research of over 1,000 South Koreans on their perspectives on the ethnic identity of North Korean defectors assimilating into South Korea. The results reveal that South Koreans generally do not support the reunification of the Koreans. This is because some South Koreans have grown suspicious of defectors and their true intentions of migrating. South Koreans' antagonism against North Korea is mainly targeted at its Communist regime and a strict division of national identity. The outcome from the KGSS survey rules that the idea of "one nation, two countries" does not exist anymore. According to a 2015 UC Santa Cruz paper, many interviewed defectors wanted to resettle in China or emigrate to a Western country, due to discrimination, difficulty with the competitive nature of South Korea, and disappointment with unfulfilled promises of wealth and riches by missionaries and the government.

Canada

North Korean asylum seekers and defectors have been rising in numbers in Canada since 2006.

Radio Free Asia Radio Free Asia (RFA) is a United States government-funded private non-profit news service that broadcasts radio programs and publishes online news, information, and commentary for its audiences in Asia. The service, which provides editoriall ...

reports that in 2007 alone, over 100 asylum applications were submitted, and that North Korean refugees have come from China or elsewhere with the help of Canadian missionaries and NGOs. The rapid increase in asylum applications to Canada is due to the limited options, especially when receiving asylum is becoming more difficult. On 2 February 2011, then-Prime Minister

Stephen Harper Stephen Joseph Harper (born April 30, 1959) is a Canadian politician who served as the 22nd prime minister of Canada from 2006 to 2015. Harper is the first and only prime minister to come from the modern-day Conservative Party of Canada, ...

met Hye Sook Kim, a North Korean defector and also received advice from Dr.

Norbert Vollertsen Norbert Vollertsen (born 10 February 1958 in Düsseldorf) is a German doctor and human rights activist. Career In North Korea from 1999 to 2001, Vollertsen practiced medicine with the Cap Anamur Committee, a non-governmental cooperation organiza ...

, "Canada can persuade China, among others, not to repatriate the North Korean refugees back to North Korea but, instead, let them go to South Korea and other countries, including Canada." 780 North Koreans lived in Canada in 2016.

China

According to the US State Department estimates, 30,000 to 50,000 out of a larger number of hiding North Koreans have the legal status of refugees. China does not grant asylum or refugee status to North Koreans and, with few exceptions, considers them illegal immigrants and deports them back to North Korea. According to an

ETH Zurich (colloquially) , former_name = eidgenössische polytechnische Schule , image = ETHZ.JPG , image_size = , established = , type = Public , budget = CHF 1.896 billion (2021) , rector = Günther Dissertori , president = Joël Mesot , ac ...

report, China does this to avoid jeopardising relations with Pyongyang. A 2009 world refugee study found that around 11,000 North Korean refugees remained in hiding in China close to the North Korean border. These refugees are not typically considered to be members of the ethnic Korean community, and the Chinese census does not count them as such. Some North Korean refugees who are unable to obtain transport to South Korea marry ethnic Koreans in China and settle there; they blend into the community but are subject to deportation if discovered by the authorities. Those who have found brokers and traffickers try to enter the South Korean consulate in

Shenyang Shenyang (, ; ; Mandarin pronunciation: ), formerly known as Fengtian () or by its Manchu language, Manchu name Mukden, is a major China, Chinese sub-provincial city and the List of capitals in China#Province capitals, provincial capital of Lia ...

. The brokers are often Korean-Chinese or South Korean missionaries, or other North Korean defectors. As of 2002, the Chinese government has tightened the security and increased the number of police outside the consulate. In 2015, the number of defectors crossing the border illegally to China was reported to be dropping due to increased border security, improved economy in North Korea, and Kim Jong-un's new promotion of legitimate labour migration. Lankov wrote that the vast majority of refugees would first move to China to earn money, and later decide to continue on to South Korea. According to documentarian Cho Cheon-hyeon in February 2021, most North Koreans in China preferred to stay there or return to the North rather than go to South Korea. During the mid-1990s, the percentages of male and female defectors were relatively balanced. In early to mid-1990s, male labour was valuable since North Korean defectors could work in Chinese countrysides and factories and secure hideout in return. However, due to rising social security issues including crime and violence involving North Koreans, the value of male labour decreased. Females, on the other hand, were able to find easier means of settlement including performing smaller labour tasks and marrying Chinese locals (mostly ethnic Korean). As of today, 80–90% of North Korean defectors residing in China are females who settled through ''de facto'' marriage; a large number of them experience forced marriage and human trafficking. Before 2009, over 70% of female North Korean defectors were victims of human trafficking. Due to their vulnerability as illegal migrants, they were sold for cheap prices, around 3,000 to 10,000 yuan. According to defector testimonies, those repatriated to North Korea are sentenced to penal-labour colonies (and/or executed), where Chinese-fathered babies are executed "to protect North Korean pure blood," and pregnant repatriates get

forced abortions A forced abortion may occur when the perpetrator causes abortion by force, threat or coercion, or by taking advantage of a situation where a pregnant individual is unable to give consent, or when valid consent is in question due to duress. This m ...

.Intervention Agenda Item 12: Elimination of Violence Against Women
at the United Nations Commission on Human Rights in April 2004; speaker: Ji Sun Jeong for ''A Woman's Voice International'' (AWVI, an NGO that focused on the PRC's and DPRK's treatment of North Korean refugees to China and of Christians). After 2009, the percentage of female North Korean defectors with experience of human trafficking decreased to 15% since large numbers of defectors began to enter South Korea through organized groups led by brokers. Academics Andrei Lankov and Kyunghee Kook have disputed the label of human trafficking or forced marriages for some cases. Lankov wrote in 2010 that many Chinese husbands attempt to improve their Korean wives' official standing and may try expensively bribing the officials to get them a Chinese Resident Identity Card where they are registered as China-born ethnic Koreans. In the early to mid-1990s, the Chinese government was relatively tolerant with the issue of North Korean defectors. Unless the North Korean government sent special requests, the Chinese government did not display serious control of the residence of North Koreans in Chinese territory. However, along with intensified North Korean famine in the late 1990s, the number of defectors sharply increased, which raised international attention. As a result, China stepped up the inspection of North Korean defectors and began their deportations. According to a 2014 paper from the Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, South Korean authorities in China would generally be unable (or unwilling) to help North Korean escapees who approached them, although there were exceptions where South Korea had requested Chinese permission for the transfer of a North Korean escapee who entered a South Korean diplomatic compound. Requests have usually been granted after 1–3 years. In June 2002, a diplomatic row broke out between China and South Korea after Chinese security guards dragged a would-be asylum seeker from Seoul's embassy in Beijing. Before the incident, China had reportedly allowed North Koreans inside other foreign missions to go to South Korea by way of a third country, including a North Korean family who was detained in Shenyang on May. In 2012, Beijing allowed 5 defectors to leave for South Korea after they had spent three years in China. In February 2012, Chinese authorities repatriated 19 North Korean defectors being held in Shenyang and five defectors in Changchun from the same location. The case of the 24 detainees, who had been held since early February, garnered international attention due to the North's reported harsh punishment of those who attempted to defect. Human-rights activists say those repatriated face harsh punishment, including torture and imprisonment in labour camps. North Korean repatriation gained Chinese media coverage on 2012, and drew sympathy towards the refugees from Chinese netizens. In August 2014, 11 North Koreans detained by China on the Laos border was reported by

Sky News Sky News is a British free-to-air television news channel and organisation. Sky News is distributed via an English-language radio news service, and through online channels. It is owned by Sky Group, a division of Comcast. John Ryley is the hea ...

to have been released rather than repatriated after talks between Chinese and South Korean diplomats. In April 2016, China allowed 13 North Korean restaurant workers to defect to South Korea, with spokesman Lu Kang saying they all had valid identity documents. The case became controversial 2 years later after 4 waitresses said they were brought to the South against their will, with the restaurant manager claiming he had been pressured by South Korea's intelligence agency. South Korean human-rights activists have held rallies at the Chinese embassy in Seoul and have appealed to the U.N. Human Rights Council to urge China to stop the deportation of the refugees. The

North Korea Freedom Coalition The North Korea Freedom Coalition (NKFC) is a US organisation established in 2003 for human rights and freedom in North Korea. The North Korea Freedom Coalition is composed of 60 organizations. Some of these organizations are advocacy groups, such ...

has created a list alleging that thousands of North Korean defectors have been repatriated by China. For some of them the fate after repatriation to North Korea ranges from torture, detention, prison camp to execution. The list includes humanitarian workers, who were assassinated or abducted by North Korean agents for helping refugees.

Europe

In 2014, research by the human rights organisation the ''European Alliance for Human Rights in North Korea'' claims that there are around 1,400 North Korean refugees in Europe. Citing UNHRC statistics, the report identified North Korean communities in Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway,

Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...

and the United Kingdom. As of 2015, the largest North Korean community in Europe resides in New Malden, South West London. Approximately 600 North Koreans are believed to reside in the area, which is already notable for its significant South Korean community. According to a

Eurostat Eurostat ('European Statistical Office'; DG ESTAT) is a Directorate-General of the European Commission located in the Kirchberg, Luxembourg, Kirchberg quarter of Luxembourg City, Luxembourg. Eurostat's main responsibilities are to provide statis ...

report, a total of 820 North Koreans became citizens of European Union countries in the 2007–2016 period, with nearly 90 percent of them living in Germany and Britain.

Japan

According to a 2020 Waseda University paper, Japanese diplomats and NGOs quietly collaborated with Chinese authorities to fly a number of defectors to Japan. China stopped collaborating with Japan on this issue in 2010 after relations deteriorated from the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands dispute. There have been three cases of North Korean defectors who have escaped directly to Japan by boat. In January 1987, a stolen boat carrying 13 North Koreans washed ashore in Fukui Port in Fukui Prefecture and then continued to South Korea via Taiwan. In June 2007, after a six-day boat ride a family of four North Koreans was found by the Japan Coast Guard off the coast of Aomori Prefecture. They later settled in South Korea. In September 2011, the Japan Coast Guard found a wooden boat containing nine people, three men, three women and three boys. The group had been sailing for five days towards South Korea but had drifted towards the Noto Peninsula and thought they had arrived in South Korea. They were found in good health. Japan resettled about 140 ethnic Koreans who managed to return to Japan after initially immigrating to North Korea under the 1959–1984 mass "repatriation" project of ethnic Koreans from Japan. This supposed humanitarian project, supported by

Chongryon The General Association of Korean Residents in Japan,
" ''

and conducted by the Japanese and North Korean Red Crosses, had involved the resettlement of around 90,000 volunteers (mostly from South Korea) in North Korea, which Chongryon hailed as a "paradise on earth". Some of the Koreans who were repatriated, including Kim Hyon-hui, a student of

Yaeko Taguchi is a Japanese citizen, one of several kidnapped by North Korea in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Abduction Taguchi worked as a bar hostess in Tokyo, Japan, to raise her two children, a one-year-old son and three-year-old daughter, after divor ...

, revealed evidence about the whereabouts of Japanese citizens who had been kidnapped by North Korea.

Laos

Public Radio International Public Radio International (PRI) was an American public radio organization. Headquartered in Minneapolis, Minnesota, PRI provided programming to over 850 public radio stations in the United States. PRI was one of the main providers of programm ...

reported in 2011 that Laos, along with Vietnam and Myanmar, were largely unsympathetic to North Korean refugees. In 2013 nine defectors were arrested and sent back to North Korea causing international outrage partially because one of the defectors is the son of a Japanese abductee.

Mongolia

A much shorter route than the standard China-Laos-Thailand route is straight to Mongolia, whose government tries to maintain good relations with both North and South Korea but is sympathetic to North Korean refugees. North Korean refugees who are caught in Mongolia are sent to South Korea, effectively granting them a free air ticket. However, using this route requires navigating the unforgiving terrain of the

Gobi Desert The Gobi Desert (Chinese: 戈壁 (沙漠), Mongolian: Говь (ᠭᠣᠪᠢ)) () is a large desert or brushland region in East Asia, and is the sixth largest desert in the world. Geography The Gobi measures from southwest to northeast an ...

. Also, tighter border control with China has made this route less common.

Philippines

The Philippines has in the past been used as a transit point for North Korean refugees, often arriving from China and then being sent on to South Korea. A 2005 US embassy cable released by WikiLeaks suggested that for 2 years, the South Korean embassy in Beijing facilitated the transit of nearly 500 refugees annually to the Ninoy Aquino International Airport for transfer to South Korea. As of 2010, there are 4,846 North Koreans in the Philippines. The country has been hard to reach due to the fact refugees have to cross China and get on a boat to the island chain nation.

Russia

A study by Kyung Hee University estimated that roughly 10,000 North Koreans live in the Russian Far East; many are escapees from North Korean work camps there. Both South Korean diplomatic missions and local ethnic Koreans are reluctant to provide them with any assistance; it is believed that North Korea ordered the assassination of South Korean consul

Choi Duk-gun Choe Deok-geun (also spelled Choi Duck-keun or Choi Duk-gun; born November 2, 1942 ; died 1 October 1996 in Vladivostok, Primorsky Krai, Russia) was a South Korean consular official for the Russian Far East who was assassinated by poison in Octo ...

in 1996 as well as two private citizens in 1995, in response to their contact with the refugees. As of 1999, there were estimated to be only between 100 and 500 North Korean refugees in the area. In 2014, Russia and North Korea drafted an agreement to deport illegal immigrants found to be living in either country.

Thailand

Thailand is generally the final destination of North Koreans escaping through China. While North Koreans are not given refugee status and are officially classified as illegal immigrants, the Thai government will deport them to South Korea instead of back to North Korea. This is because South Korea recognizes native Koreans from the entire Korean Peninsula as

citizens Citizenship is a "relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection". Each state determines the conditions under which it will recognize persons as its citizens, and ...

. These North Korean escapees are subject to imprisonment for illegal entry; however, most of these sentences are suspended. Recognizing this, many North Koreans will in fact surrender themselves to the Royal Thai Police as soon as they cross the border into Thailand.

United States

On 5 May 2006, unnamed North Koreans were granted refugee status by the United States, the first time the U.S. accepted refugees from there since President

George W. Bush George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 43rd president of the United States from 2001 to 2009. A member of the Republican Party, Bush family, and son of the 41st president George H. W. Bush, he ...

signed the North Korean Human Rights Act in October 2004. The group, which arrived from an unnamed Southeast Asian nation, included four women who said that they had been the victims of forced marriage. Since this first group of refugees, the U.S. has admitted approximately 170 North Korean refugees by 2014. Between 2004 and 2011, the U.S. has admitted only 122 North Korean refugees and only 25 have received political asylum. A number of North Koreans have entered illegally, estimated at 200, and generally settle in the ethnic Korean community in Los Angeles. An aunt and uncle of

Kim Jong-un Kim Jong-un (; , ; born 8 January 1982) is a North Korean politician who has been Supreme Leader of North Korea since 2011 and the leader of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) since 2012. He is a son of Kim Jong-il, who was North Korea's sec ...

have lived in the United States since 1998.

Vietnam

Many defectors who reach China travel onwards to southeast Asia, especially Vietnam. The journey consists of crossing the Tumen River, either when frozen or shallow in summer, in camouflage, and then taking the train secretly across China. From there, they can either work illegally, though often exploited, or attempt to travel to South Korea. According to the

International Crisis Group The International Crisis Group (ICG; also known as the Crisis Group) is a transnational non-profit, non-governmental organisation founded in 1995. It is a think tank, used by policymakers and academics, performing research and analysis on global ...

in 2006, although Vietnam maintained diplomatic relations with North Korea, growing South Korean investment in Vietnam had prompted Hanoi to tolerate the transit of some North Korean refugees to Seoul. Four of the biggest defector safehouses in Vietnam were run by South Korean expatriates. In July 2004, 468 North Korean refugees were airlifted to South Korea in the single largest mass defection; Vietnam initially tried to keep their role in the airlift secret, and in advance of the deal, even anonymous sources in the South Korean government would only tell reporters that the defectors came from "an unidentified Asian country". Following the airlift, Vietnam tightened border controls and deported several safehouse operators. In June 2002, 17 North Korean defectors were reportedly captured by Vietnamese border forces and deported to China. 5 North Korean defectors who surrendered to the Ho Chi Minh City police in May 2004 in an appeal to go to South Korea were reportedly deported to China by Vietnamese authorities on 16 June. On 25 June 2012, a South Korean activist surnamed Yoo was arrested in Vietnam for helping the North Korean defectors to escape. He was reportedly released after 8 days and then deported to Seoul. 9 North Koreans were arrested on 22 October 2015 and then reportedly deported to the Chinese city of

. In April 2019, 6 North Koreans were stopped by Vietnamese military authorities in the province of

Ha Tinh Ha may refer to: Agencies and organizations * Health authority * Hells Angels Motorcycle Club * Highways Agency (now ''National Highways''), UK government body maintaining England's major roads * Homelessness Australia, peak body organisation fo ...

; 3 managed to escape while the other 3 were reportedly deported to China. On 23 November 2019, 14 defectors who had left China 2 days earlier were caught in Vietnam as they attempted to make their way to Laos. The Vietnamese authorities returned the group to China on 28 November. 10 of the original 14 were caught again in Vietnam the next day. According to a Seoul-based activist group in January 2020, 11 North Koreans detained in Vietnam while seeking to defect to South Korea were released with the help of European institutions. A Wall Street Journal report said that US officials had intervened to secure the defectors' release; the report's accuracy was questioned by South Korea's Foreign Ministry and the activist group's leader.

Psychological and cultural adjustment

North Korean defectors experience serious difficulties connected to psychological and cultural adjustment once they have been resettled. This occurs mainly because of the conditions and environment that North Koreans lived in while in their own country, as well as inability to fully comprehend new culture, rules, and ways of living in South Korea. Difficulties in adjustment often come in the form of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which is essentially a mental disorder that develops after a person has experienced a major traumatic event. In the case of North Koreans, such traumatic events and experiences include brutality of the regime,

starvation Starvation is a severe deficiency in caloric energy intake, below the level needed to maintain an organism's life. It is the most extreme form of malnutrition. In humans, prolonged starvation can cause permanent organ damage and eventually, dea ...

, ideological pressure,

propaganda Propaganda is communication that is primarily used to influence or persuade an audience to further an agenda, which may not be objective and may be selectively presenting facts to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded ...

, political punishments, and so on.Yoonok Chang, Stephan Haggard, and Marcus Noland, (March 2008). ''Migration Experiences of North Korean Refugees: Survey Evidence from China.'' Peterson Institute for International Economics, Working Paper Series. Retrieved 26 September 2016. Some studies have found the direct connection between physical illness and PTSD. PTSD serves as an explanation of the link between the exposure to trauma and physical health: exposure to trauma leads to worsening of the physical health condition. PTSD-related symptoms include disturbing memories or dreams relate to the traumatic events, anxiety, mental or physical distress, alterations in the ways of thinking. Depression and somatization are two of the conventional forms of PTSD, both of which are diagnosed among North Korean defectors with females having larger statistic numbers of the disorder diagnoses. According to a recent survey, about 56% of the North Korean defectors are influenced by one or more types of psychological disorders. 93% of surveyed North Korean defectors identify food and

water shortages Water scarcity (closely related to water stress or water crisis) is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two types of water scarcity: physical or economic water scarcity. Physical water scarcity is wher ...

and no access to medical care and, thus, constant illness as the most common types of their traumatic experiences preceding PTSD. Such traumatic experiences greatly influence the ways North Korean defectors adjust in new places. PTSD often prevents defectors from adequately assimilating into a new culture as well as from being able to hold jobs and accumulate material resources. Traumatic events are not the only reason why North Koreans experience difficulty adjusting to the new way of living. Woo Teak-jeon conducted interviews with 32 North Korean defectors living in South Korea and found that other adjustment difficulties that are not related to PTSD occur due to such factors as the defector's suspiciousness, their way of thinking, prejudice of the new society, and unfamiliar sets of values. In many instances, North Korean defectors seem to be unable to easily adjust to the new way of living even when it comes to nutrition. According to research conducted by The Korean Nutrition Society, North Koreans used to consuming only small portions of food in North Korea daily, continue to exercise the same type of habits even when given an abundance of food and provision. Psychological and cultural adjustment of North Koreans to the new norms and rules is a sensitive issue, but it has some ways of resolution. According to Yoon, collective effort of the defectors themselves, the government, NGOs, and humanitarian and religious organizations can help make the adjustment process smoother and less painful. The non-profit NGO Teach North Korean Refugees (TNKR), has received positive recognition for aiding refugees' adjustment to life outside of North Korea. According to their website, TNKR's mission is to empower North Korean refugees to find their own voice and path through education, advocacy, and support. Their primary focus is to assist North Korean refugees in preparing for their future and transitioning to life outside of North Korea by providing free English learning opportunities. TNKR also hosts bi-annual English public speaking contests for North Korean refugees and holds public forums that offer first-hand accounts of life in, escape from, and adjustment outside of North Korea. TNKR was founded in 2013 by Casey Lartigue Jr. and Eunkoo Lee, who currently co-direct the organization. Lartigue Jr. and Lee gave a joint TEDx Talk in 2017 that tells the history of TNKR and offers practical lessons for making the world a better place.

Returning to North Korea

In some cases, defectors voluntarily return to North Korea. Double defectors either take a route through third countries such as China, or may defect directly from South Korea. From 2012 to 2021 the

Unification Ministry The Ministry of Unification is an executive department of the South Korean government aimed at promoting Korean reunification. It was first established in 1969 as the ''National Unification Board'', under the rule of Park Chung-hee. It gained it ...

had recorded 30 defector returns, but there were likely more unrecorded returns. A former South Korean MP estimated that in 2012 about 100 defectors returned to North Korea via China. In 2015, it was reported that about 700 defectors living in South Korea are unaccounted for and have possibly fled to China or Southeast Asia in hopes of returning to North Korea. In one case, a double defector re-entered North Korea four times. North Korea under

has allegedly started a campaign to attract defectors to return with promises of money, housing, employment, and no punishments. A foreign diplomat in Pyongyang said in 2013 that not all returning defectors are trucked to prison; they can instead be put on TV for propaganda purposes. According to unconfirmed reports, government operatives have contacted defectors living in South Korea and offered them guarantees that their families are safe, 50 million South Korean Won ($44,000), and a public appearance on TV. It was reported in 2013 that North Korea had aired at least 13 such appearances on TV where returning defectors complain about poor living conditions in the South and pledge allegiance to Kim Jong-un. In November 2016, North Korean website Uriminzokkiri aired an interview with three double defectors who complained that they had been treated as second-class citizens. ABC News reported in 2017 that 25% of all defectors in South Korea have seriously considered returning home. In 2013, a re-defector was charged by South Korea upon return. In 2016, defector Kim Ryon-hui's request to return to North Korea was denied by the South Korean government. In June 2017, Chun Hye-sung, a defector who had been a guest on several South Korean TV shows using the name Lim Ji-hyun, returned to the North. On North Korean TV, she said that she had been ill-treated and pressured into fabricating stories detrimental to North Korea. In July 2017, a man who had defected to the South and then returned to the North was arrested under the National Security Act when he entered the South again. In 2019, South Korea deported two North Korean fishermen who tried to defect, saying that an investigation had found the men had killed 16 of their crewmates. In July 2020, North Korea reported a suspected case of COVID-19 in a man who had defected to the South and then swam to the North from Ganghwa Island. On 2 January 2022, a defector returned to North Korea by crossing the DMZ. The man had been in South Korea for about a year, and had been working as a cleaner "barely scraping a living" according to a South Korean official. South Korea launched an inquiry into why, despite surveillance cameras showing his exit, troops did not stop him. In 2021, a survey by the Database Center for North Korean Human Rights and NK Social Research found that 18% of 407 defectors polled were willing to return to North Korea.

Fiction and non-fiction works

Gérard de Villiers Gérard de Villiers (; 8 December 1929 – 31 October 2013) was a French writer, journalist and publisher whose ''SAS'' series of spy novels have been major bestsellers. Life Born in Paris in 1929, Villiers was the son of playwright Jacques Ad ...

, ''Le Défecteur de Pyongyang'' (

SAS SAS or Sas may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media * ''SAS'' (novel series), a French book series by Gérard de Villiers * ''Shimmer and Shine'', an American animated children's television series * Southern All Stars, a Japanese rock ba ...

series, two volumes) * '' Wild Animals'' – this 1997 film features Hong-san (played by Jang Dong-jik), a North Korean defector and former Korean People's Army soldier who flees to Paris in search of a better life. * '' A River in Darkness: One Man's Escape from North Korea,'' by

Masaji Ishikawa Masaji Ishikawa or Do Changsun is a North Korean defector and author on Zainichi heritage. Ishikawa was thirteen years old when he moved from Japan to North Korea in 1960. His father was Zainichi Korean and his mother was Japanese. Ishikawa ...

, a memoir of escape to China * '' Dear Leader: My Escape from North Korea'' – Jang Jin-sung *''I Escaped North Korea!'' – by Ellie Crowe and Scott Peters – 2019 middle-grade story of a North Korean orphan fleeing through

* '' Seoul Train'' – 2004 documentary film that deals with the dangerous journeys of North Korean refugees fleeing through or to

* '' Over the Border'' – the main character of this movie, Kim Sun-ho (played by

Cha Seung-won Cha Seung-won (born June 7, 1970) is a South Korean actor, who began his career as an in-demand fashion model in the 1990s. Cha achieved stardom through the hit comedy films ''Kick the Moon'' (2001), ''Jail Breakers'' (2002), '' My Teacher, Mr. ...

) is a North Korean classical musician who defects to South Korea after unintentionally putting his family in danger by exchanging letters with his grandfather, who resides in Seoul for several years before the events of the film. * ''

Keurosing ''Crossing'' (also known as ''Keurosing'') is a 2008 South Korean film directed by Kim Tae-kyun. It was selected as South Korea's submission to the 81st Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film. The film follows the journey of a North Korean ...

'' – This 2008 film has as protagonist Kim Yong-soo (played by Cha In-pyo), a North Korean defector who flees to

in search of medicine for his sick wife. * '' Nothing to Envy: Ordinary Lives in North Korea'' by Barbara Demick focuses on the pre-and-post defection lives of several individuals from Chongjin * ''

The Journals of Musan ''The Journals of Musan'' () is a 2011 South Korean film by Park Jung-bum, based on the experiences of Park's friend Jeon Seung-chul, a North Korean refugee he met while attending Yonsei University; Jeon was diagnosed with stomach cancer and died ...

'' – this 2011 film, based on true events, tells the story of Jeon Seung-chul (played by Park Jung-bum), a North Korean defector who struggles to adapt to his new life in South Korea. * '' Poongsan'' – the female protagonist of this 2011 film, In-Ok (played by Kim Gyu-ri) is a beautiful North Korean defector from Pyongyang, North Korea who is brought to South Korea to be close to her lover, a high-ranking North Korean official (played by Kim Jong-soo) who also defected to South Korea, but she ends up falling in love with the protagonist, a messenger known only as "Poongsan" (played by

Yoon Kye-sang Yoon Kye-sang (; born December 20, 1978) is a South Korean actor and singer. He began his career in 1999 as part of the K-pop boy band g.o.d, then left the group in 2004 and pursued an acting career. He made his acting debut in the film ''Flying ...

). * ''

Escape from Camp 14 Shin Dong-hyuk (born Shin In Geun, 19 November 1982 or 1980) is a North Korean-born human rights activist. He is reputed to be the only known prisoner to have successfully escaped from a "total-control zone" grade internment camp in North Kore ...

'' by

Blaine Harden Blaine Harden (born 1952) is an American journalist and author. His 2012 book '' Escape from Camp 14'' is an official biography of North Korean defector Shin Dong-hyuk. Journalism Harden worked for 28 years for ''The Washington Post'' as a corresp ...

– 2012 story of Shin Dong-hyuk. * ''

The Orphan Master's Son ''The Orphan Master's Son'' is a 2012 novel by American author Adam Johnson. It deals with intertwined themes of propaganda, identity, and state power in North Korea. The novel was awarded the 2013 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. Characters *Pak J ...

,'' a 2012 Pulitzer Prize winning novel by Adam Johnson * '' The Suspect'' – The protagonist of this 2013 film, Ji Dong-cheol (played by Gong Yoo) is a former North Korean spy who defects to South Korea in search of revenge against a former agency colleague who was responsible for the his family's death. * '' The Defector: Escape from North Korea'', a 2013 documentary film * ''In Order to Live: A North Korean Girl's Journey to Freedom'' by Yeonmi Park talks about her escape from North Korea into China and finally South Korea. * ''The Girl with Seven Names: Escape from North Korea'' – 2015 autobiography of

Hyeonseo Lee Lee Hyeon-seo (Korean: 이현서, born January 1980), best known for her book, ''The Girl with Seven Names'', is a North Korean defector and activist who lives in Seoul, South Korea, where she is a student. She escaped from North Korea and late ...

, a woman who escaped from North Korea by crossing the Yalu River in 1997. * ''

Fortune Smiles ''Fortune Smiles'' is a 2015 collection of short stories by American author and novelist Adam Johnson. It is Johnson's second published short story collection, after his 2002 book '' Emporium'' and his first book after winning the Pulitzer Prize ...

'' – a book of short stories by Adam Johnson whose title story features two defectors adjusting to life in Seoul * '' Blow Breeze'' – a 2016 MBC weekend drama has as protagonist Kim Mi-poong (played by

Lim Ji-yeon Lim Ji-yeon (born June 23, 1990) is a South Korean actress. After beginning her acting career in stage plays and short films, Lim made her feature debut in 2014 with a leading role in the erotic thriller '' Obsessed''. Early life Lim majored in ...

), a young North Korean woman who defects to Seoul, South Korea in search of her dancing dream. * ''Every Falling Star: The True Story of How I Survived and Escaped North Korea'' – a 2016 book telling the story of Sungju Lee, a defector who grew up as an orphan in North Korea * ''

Confidential Assignment ''Confidential Assignment'' (; lit. ''Cooperation'') is a 2017 Cinema of Korea, South Korean action comedy film directed by Kim Sung-hoon (director), Kim Sung-hoon. It stars Hyun Bin, Yoo Hae-jin and Kim Joo-hyuk. In the film, a North Korean offic ...

'' – the main antagonist of this 2017 movie, Cha Ki-seong (played by Kim Joo-hyuk) is a renegade North Korean official from Hoeryong who, furious at the North Korean regime for killing his wife, steals plates to make counterfeit

supernotes A superdollar (also known as a superbill or supernote) is a very high quality counterfeit United States one hundred-dollar bill, alleged by the United States Government, U.S. government to have been made by unknown organizations or governments. In ...

and creating his criminal empire, and as a consequence, ends up fleeing to South Korea * ''

Loyal Citizens of Pyongyang in Seoul (서울의 평양 시민들) Loyal may refer to: * Loyalty Music * Loyal (album), ''Loyal'' (album), by Dave Dobbyn, 1988 ** Loyal (Dave Dobbyn song), "Loyal" (Dave Dobbyn song) * ''The Loyal'', an album by Tiger Lou, 2005 * Loyal (Chris Brown song), "Loyal" (Chris Brown son ...

'', a 2018 independent documentary * '' Beautiful Days'' – the protagonist of this 2018 film is a North Korean defector (played by Lee Na-young) who flees to South Korea from China in search of a better life leaving behind her life in China, her marriage and her family, her Korean Chinese husband and her son, who becomes hate her. * ''Shadow Flowers'' – 2019 documentary about Ryun-hee Kim, filmed by Seung-Jun Yi * ''

Move to Heaven ''Move to Heaven'' () is a South Korean streaming television series directed by Kim Sung-ho and written by Yoon Ji-ryeon. It is an original Netflix series, starring Lee Je-hoon, Tang Jun-sang, and Hong Seung-hee. The series follows Geu-ru (Tan ...

'' – a 2021 Netflix South Korean drama has as one of its most recurrent characters a North Korean defector, Park Joo-taek (portrayed by Lee Moon-sik) * '' Squid Game'' – a 2021 Netflix South Korean drama which has a North Korean defector from

,NBC News: Jung Ho-yeon of ‘Squid Game’ on dark twists in series, light mood on set
/ref>

Kang Sae-byeok ''Squid Game'' () is a South Korean survival drama series created by Hwang Dong-hyuk for Netflix. The first season of the series features an ensemble cast including Lee Jung-jae, Park Hae-soo, HoYeon Jung, Wi Ha-joon, O Yeong-su, Heo Sung-tae, ...

(portrayed by

Jung Ho-yeon Jung Hoyeon (; born June 23, 1994), also known as Hoyeon Jung, is a South Korean model and actress. She began her career as a freelance model in 2010, walking in Seoul Fashion Week shows for two years. In 2013, she competed on the fourth sea ...

) as one of their main characters. * '' Crash Landing on You'' — a 2019 Netflix South Korean romantic drama about a woman who arrives by accident in North Korea, gets rescued by a Captain in the army and helps her escape the country.

References

External links

Websites
Crossing Heaven's Border
PBS documentary follows North Korean defectors on a harrowing journey to freedom
"Seoul Train"
by Jim Butterworth, Lisa Sleeth and Aaron Lubarsky, 2004 PBS documentary, at '' Independent Lens'' PBS website.
"Seoul Train"
at ''

Global Voices Global Voices is an international community of writers, bloggers and digital activists that aim to translate and report on what is being said in citizen media worldwide. It is a non-profit project started at the Berkman Center for Internet and S ...

'' PBS website) Articles
UNHCR protests Chinese deportation of North Koreans

"North Korean Refugees in China and Human Rights Issues: International Response and U.S. Policy Options"
CRS Report to Congress, 26 September 2007 * Wolfowitz, Paul
"How to Help North Korea's Refugees"
''The Wall Street Journal'', 16 June 2009
"North Korean Refugees in China: Findings"
U.S. Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 2005 Annual Report. * MacIntyre, Donald

''Time'' magazine, Monday, 25 June 2001

* Media *
North Korean defectors answer 'stupid questions'
BBC. {{Korean diaspora History of North Korea Korean migration

Terms

Demographics

By destination

South Korea

Reward

Resettlement

Statistics

Discrimination

Mental health

Identity politics

Canada

China

Europe

Japan

Laos

Mongolia

Philippines

Russia

Thailand

United States

Vietnam

Psychological and cultural adjustment

Returning to North Korea

Fiction and non-fiction works

See also

References

External links