![Norman-conquest-1066](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Norman-conquest-1066.svg)
The Norman Conquest (or the Conquest) was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe b ...
by an army made up of thousands of
Norman
Norman or Normans may refer to:
Ethnic and cultural identity
* The Normans, a people partly descended from Norse Vikings who settled in the territory of Normandy in France in the 10th and 11th centuries
** People or things connected with the Norm ...
,
Breton
Breton most often refers to:
*anything associated with Brittany, and generally
** Breton people
** Breton language, a Southwestern Brittonic Celtic language of the Indo-European language family, spoken in Brittany
** Breton (horse), a breed
**Ga ...
,
Flemish
Flemish (''Vlaams'') is a Low Franconian dialect cluster of the Dutch language. It is sometimes referred to as Flemish Dutch (), Belgian Dutch ( ), or Southern Dutch (). Flemish is native to Flanders, a historical region in northern Belgium; ...
, and
French troops, all led by the
Duke of Normandy, later styled
William the Conqueror
William I; ang, WillelmI (Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 33– 9 September 1087), usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first House of Normandy, Norman List of English monarchs#House of Norman ...
.
William's claim to the
English throne
The Throne of England is the throne of the Monarch of England. "Throne of England" also refers metonymically to the office of monarch, and monarchy itself.Gordon, Delahay. (1760) ''A General History of the Lives, Trials, and Executions of All th ...
derived from his familial relationship with the childless
Anglo-Saxon king
Edward the Confessor, who may have encouraged William's hopes for the throne. Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother-in-law
Harold Godwinson
Harold Godwinson ( – 14 October 1066), also called Harold II, was the last crowned Anglo-Saxon English king. Harold reigned from 6 January 1066 until his death at the Battle of Hastings, fighting the Norman invaders led by William the ...
. The
Norwegian king
The Norwegian monarch is the head of state of Norway, which is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy with a parliamentary system. The Norwegian monarchy can trace its line back to the reign of Harald Fairhair and the previous petty kingdom ...
Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in September 1066 and was victorious at the
Battle of Fulford on 20 September, but Godwinson's army defeated and killed Hardrada at the
Battle of Stamford Bridge
The Battle of Stamford Bridge ( ang, Gefeoht æt Stanfordbrycge) took place at the village of Stamford Bridge, East Riding of Yorkshire, in England, on 25 September 1066, between an English army under King Harold Godwinson and an invading No ...
on 25 September. Three days later on 28 September, William's invasion force of thousands of men and hundreds of ships landed at
Pevensey
Pevensey ( ) is a village and civil parish in the Wealden district of East Sussex, England. The main village is located north-east of Eastbourne, one mile (1.6 km) inland from Pevensey Bay. The settlement of Pevensey Bay forms part ...
in
Sussex in southern England. Harold marched south to oppose him, leaving a significant portion of his army in the north. Harold's army confronted William's invaders on 14 October at the
Battle of Hastings
The Battle of Hastings nrf, Batâle dé Hastings was fought on 14 October 1066 between the Norman-French army of William, the Duke of Normandy, and an English army under the Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson, beginning the Norman Conque ...
. William's force defeated Harold, who was killed in the engagement, and William became king.
Although William's main rivals were gone, he still faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on the English throne until after 1072. The lands of the resisting
English elite were confiscated; some of the elite fled into exile. To control his new kingdom, William granted lands to his followers and built castles commanding military strongpoints throughout the land. The
Domesday Book
Domesday Book () – the Middle English spelling of "Doomsday Book" – is a manuscript record of the "Great Survey" of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 by order of King William I, known as William the Conqueror. The manusc ...
, a manuscript record of the "Great Survey" of much of England and parts of Wales, was completed by 1086. Other effects of the conquest included the
court
A court is any person or institution, often as a government institution, with the authority to adjudicate legal disputes between parties and carry out the administration of justice in civil, criminal, and administrative matters in acco ...
and government, the introduction of the
Norman language as the language of the elites, and changes in the composition of the upper classes, as William
enfeoffed
In the Middle Ages, especially under the European feudal system, feoffment or enfeoffment was the deed by which a person was given land in exchange for a pledge of service. This mechanism was later used to avoid restrictions on the passage of ti ...
lands to be held directly from the king. More gradual changes affected the agricultural classes and village life: the main change appears to have been the formal elimination of
slavery
Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
, which may or may not have been linked to the invasion. There was little alteration in the structure of government, as the new Norman administrators took over many of the forms of Anglo-Saxon government.
Origins
![Rollo spol](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Rollo_spol.jpg)
In 911, the
Carolingian French ruler
Charles the Simple
Charles III (17 September 879 – 7 October 929), called the Simple or the Straightforward (from the Latin ''Carolus Simplex''), was the king of West Francia from 898 until 922 and the king of Lotharingia from 911 until 919–923. He was a mem ...
allowed a group of
Vikings
Vikings ; non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway and Sweden),
who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded and ...
under their leader
Rollo
Rollo ( nrf, Rou, ''Rolloun''; non, Hrólfr; french: Rollon; died between 928 and 933) was a Viking who became the first ruler of Normandy, today a region in northern France. He emerged as the outstanding warrior among the Norsemen who had se ...
to settle in
Normandy
Normandy (; french: link=no, Normandie ; nrf, Normaundie, Nouormandie ; from Old French , plural of ''Normant'', originally from the word for "northman" in several Scandinavian languages) is a geographical and cultural region in Northwestern ...
as part of the
Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte
The treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte (911) is the foundational document of the Duchy of Normandy, establishing Rollo, a Norse warlord and Viking leader, as the first Duke of Normandy in exchange for his loyalty to the king of West Francia, followi ...
. In exchange for the land, the Norsemen under Rollo were expected to provide protection along the coast against further Viking invaders.
[Bates ''Normandy Before 1066'' pp. 8–10] Their settlement proved successful, and the Vikings in the region became known as the "Northmen" from which "Normandy" and "Normans" are derived.
[Crouch ''Normans'' pp. 15–16] The Normans quickly adopted the indigenous culture as they became assimilated by the French, renouncing
paganism and converting to
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
.
[Bates ''Normandy Before 1066'' p. 12] They adopted the
langue d'oïl
Langue is a municipality in the Valle Department, Honduras.
The town is located near the border of El Salvador and is a regional Hammock making center. Most of the town is made up of sharecroppers and day laborers. There are usually Mormon miss ...
of their new home and added features from their own
Norse language
Old Norse, Old Nordic, or Old Scandinavian, is a stage of development of North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and their overseas settlement ...
, transforming it into the
Norman language. They intermarried with the local population
[Bates ''Normandy Before 1066'' pp. 20–21] and used the territory granted to them as a base to extend the frontiers of the duchy westward, annexing territory including the
Bessin, the
Cotentin Peninsula
The Cotentin Peninsula (, ; nrf, Cotentîn ), also known as the Cherbourg Peninsula, is a peninsula in Normandy that forms part of the northwest coast of France. It extends north-westward into the English Channel, towards Great Britain. To its w ...
and
Avranches.
[Hallam and Everard ''Capetian France'' p. 53]
In 1002, English king
Æthelred the Unready
Æthelred II ( ang, Æþelræd, ;Different spellings of this king’s name most commonly found in modern texts are "Ethelred" and "Æthelred" (or "Aethelred"), the latter being closer to the original Old English form . Compare the modern diale ...
married
Emma of Normandy
Emma of Normandy (referred to as Ælfgifu in royal documents; c. 984 – 6 March 1052) was a Norman-born noblewoman who became the English, Danish, and Norwegian queen through her marriages to the Anglo-Saxon king Æthelred the Unready and the ...
, the sister of
Richard II, Duke of Normandy
Richard II (died 28 August 1026), called the Good (French: ''Le Bon''), was the duke of Normandy from 996 until 1026.
Life
Richard was the eldest surviving son and heir of Richard the Fearless and Gunnor. He succeeded his father as the ruler of ...
.
[Williams ''Æthelred the Unready'' p. 54] Their son
Edward the Confessor, who spent many years in exile in Normandy, succeeded to the English throne in 1042.
[Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 3] This led to the establishment of a powerful Norman interest in English politics, as Edward drew heavily on his former hosts for support, bringing in Norman courtiers, soldiers, and clerics and appointing them to positions of power, particularly in the Church. Childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable
Godwin, Earl of Wessex
Godwin of Wessex ( ang, Godwine; – 15 April 1053) was an English nobleman who became one of the most powerful earls in England under the Danish king Cnut the Great (King of England from 1016 to 1035) and his successors. Cnut made Godwin the ...
and his sons, Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandy's ambitions for the English throne.
[Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' pp. 86–99]
When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066, the lack of a clear heir led to a disputed succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England.
[Higham ''Death of Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 167–181] Edward's immediate successor was the
Earl of Wessex
Earl of Wessex is a title that has been created twice in British history – once in the pre-Conquest Anglo-Saxon nobility of England, and once in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. In the 6th century AD the region of Wessex (the lands of the We ...
, Harold Godwinson, the richest and most powerful of the English aristocrats. Harold was elected king by the
Witenagemot
The Witan () was the king's council in Anglo-Saxon England from before the seventh century until the 11th century. It was composed of the leading magnates, both ecclesiastic and secular, and meetings of the council were sometimes called the Wi ...
of England and crowned by the
Archbishop of York, Ealdred, although Norman propaganda claimed the ceremony was performed by
Stigand
Stigand (died 1072) was an Anglo-Saxon churchman in pre-Norman Conquest England who became Archbishop of Canterbury. His birth date is unknown, but by 1020 he was serving as a royal chaplain and advisor. He was named Bishop of Elmham in 10 ...
, the
uncanonically elected
Archbishop of Canterbury
The archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and a principal leader of the Church of England, the ceremonial head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury. The current archbishop is Justi ...
.
[Walker ''Harold'' pp. 136–138] Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers. Duke William claimed that he had been promised the throne by King Edward and that Harold had sworn agreement to this;[Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 73–77] King Harald III of Norway, commonly known as Harald Hardrada, also contested the succession. His claim to the throne was based on an agreement between his predecessor, Magnus the Good
Magnus Olafsson (Old Norse: ''Magnús Óláfsson''; Norwegian and Danish: ''Magnus Olavsson''; – 25 October 1047), better known as Magnus the Good (Old Norse: ''Magnús góði'', Norwegian and Danish: ''Magnus den gode''), was King of Norwa ...
, and the earlier English king, Harthacnut
Harthacnut ( da, Hardeknud; "Tough-knot"; – 8 June 1042), traditionally Hardicanute, sometimes referred to as Canute III, was King of Denmark from 1035 to 1042 and King of the English from 1040 to 1042.
Harthacnut was the son of King ...
, whereby if either died without an heir, the other would inherit both England and Norway.[Higham ''Death of Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 188–190] William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England.[Huscroft ''Ruling England'' pp. 12–14]
Tostig's raids and the Norwegian invasion
In early 1066, Harold's exiled brother, Tostig Godwinson
Tostig Godwinson ( 102925 September 1066) was an Anglo-Saxon Earl of Northumbria and brother of King Harold Godwinson. After being exiled by his brother, Tostig supported the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada's invasion of England, and was killed ...
, raided southeastern England with a fleet he had recruited in Flanders
Flanders (, ; Dutch: ''Vlaanderen'' ) is the Flemish-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, ...
, later joined by other ships from Orkney
Orkney (; sco, Orkney; on, Orkneyjar; nrn, Orknøjar), also known as the Orkney Islands, is an archipelago in the Northern Isles of Scotland, situated off the north coast of the island of Great Britain. Orkney is 10 miles (16 km) north ...
. Threatened by Harold's fleet, Tostig moved north and raided in East Anglia
East Anglia is an area in the East of England, often defined as including the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk and Cambridgeshire. The name derives from the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Angles, a people whose name originated in Anglia, in ...
and Lincolnshire
Lincolnshire (abbreviated Lincs.) is a county in the East Midlands of England, with a long coastline on the North Sea to the east. It borders Norfolk to the south-east, Cambridgeshire to the south, Rutland to the south-west, Leicestershire ...
, but he was driven back to his ships by the brothers Edwin, Earl of Mercia
Edwin (Old English: ''Ēadwine'') (died 1071) was the elder brother of Morcar, Earl of Northumbria, son of Ælfgār, Earl of Mercia and grandson of Leofric, Earl of Mercia. He succeeded to his father's title and responsibilities on Ælfgār's de ...
, and Morcar, Earl of Northumbria
Morcar (or Morkere) ( ang, Mōrcǣr) (died after 1087) was the son of Ælfgār (earl of Mercia) and brother of Ēadwine. He was the earl of Northumbria from 1065 to 1066, when he was replaced by William the Conqueror with Copsi.
Dispute with t ...
. Deserted by most of his followers, Tostig withdrew to Scotland, where he spent the summer recruiting fresh forces.[Walker ''Harold'' pp. 144–145] King Harold spent the summer on the south coast with a large army and fleet waiting for William to invade, but the bulk of his forces were militia who needed to harvest their crops, so on 8 September Harold dismissed them.[Walker ''Harold'' pp. 144–150]
Hardrada invaded northern England in early September, leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15,000 men. Harald's army was further augmented by the forces of Tostig, who threw his support behind the Norwegian king's bid for the throne. Advancing on York, the Norwegians defeated a northern English army under Edwin and Morcar on 20 September at the Battle of Fulford.[Walker ''Harold'' pp. 154–158] The two earls had rushed to engage the Norwegian forces before Harold could arrive from the south. Although Harold Godwinson had married Edwin and Morcar's sister Ealdgyth The name Ealdgyth ( ang, Ealdgȳð; sometimes modernized to Aldith, may refer to
* Ealdgyth, daughter of Uhtred the Bold, Earl of Northumbria (died 1016) and Ælfgifu who is a daughter of Æthelred II
* Ealdgyth (floruit 1015–1016) (born c. 9 ...
, the two earls may have distrusted Harold and feared that the king would replace Morcar with Tostig. The end result was that their forces were devastated and unable to participate in the rest of the campaigns of 1066, although the two earls survived the battle.[Marren ''1066'' pp. 65–71]
Hardrada moved on to York, which surrendered to him. After taking hostages from the leading men of the city, on 24 September the Norwegians moved east to the tiny village of Stamford Bridge.[Marren ''1066'' p. 73] King Harold probably learned of the Norwegian invasion in mid-September and rushed north, gathering forces as he went.[ The royal forces probably took nine days to cover the distance from London to York, averaging almost per day. At dawn on 25 September Harold's forces reached York, where he learned the location of the Norwegians.][Marren ''1066'' pp. 74–75] The English then marched on the invaders and took them by surprise, defeating them in the Battle of Stamford Bridge
The Battle of Stamford Bridge ( ang, Gefeoht æt Stanfordbrycge) took place at the village of Stamford Bridge, East Riding of Yorkshire, in England, on 25 September 1066, between an English army under King Harold Godwinson and an invading No ...
. Harald of Norway and Tostig were killed, and the Norwegians suffered such horrific losses that only 24 of the original 300 ships were required to carry away the survivors. The English victory was costly, however, as Harold's army was left in a battered and weakened state, and far from the English Channel.[Walker ''Harold'' pp. 158–165]
Norman invasion
Norman preparations and forces
William assembled a large invasion fleet and an army gathered from Normandy and all over France, including large contingents from Brittany
Brittany (; french: link=no, Bretagne ; br, Breizh, or ; Gallo language, Gallo: ''Bertaèyn'' ) is a peninsula, Historical region, historical country and cultural area in the west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known ...
and Flanders.[ He mustered his forces at ]Saint-Valery-sur-Somme
Saint-Valery-sur-Somme (, literally ''Saint-Valery on Somme''; pcd, Saint-Wary), commune in the Somme department, is a seaport and resort on the south bank of the River Somme estuary. The town's medieval character and ramparts, its Gothic churc ...
and was ready to cross the Channel by about 12 August.[Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 192] The exact numbers and composition of William's force are unknown.[Gravett ''Hastings'' pp. 20–21] A contemporary document claims that William had 726 ships, but this may be an inflated figure.[Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 25] Figures given by contemporary writers are highly exaggerated, varying from 14,000 to 150,000 men.[Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 163–164] Modern historians have offered a range of estimates for the size of William's forces: 7000–8000 men, 1000–2000 of them cavalry;[Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 26] 10,000–12,000 men;[ 10,000 men, 3000 of them cavalry;][Marren ''1066'' pp. 89–90] or 7500 men.[ The army would have consisted of a mix of cavalry, infantry, and archers or crossbowmen, with about equal numbers of cavalry and archers and the foot soldiers equal in number to the other two types combined.][Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 27] Although later lists of companions of William the Conqueror
William the Conqueror had men of diverse standing and origins under his command at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. With these and other men he went on in the five succeeding years to conduct the Harrying of the North and complete the Norman conqu ...
are extant, most are padded with extra names; only about 35 individuals can be reliably claimed to have been with William at Hastings.[Marren ''1066'' pp. 108–109]
William of Poitiers
William of Poitiers ( 10201090) (LA: Guillelmus Pictaviensis; FR: Guillaume de Poitiers) was a Frankish priest of Norman origin and chaplain of Duke William of Normandy (William the Conqueror), for whom he chronicled the Norman Conquest of Engla ...
states that William obtained Pope Alexander II's consent for the invasion, signified by a papal banner, along with diplomatic support from other European rulers. Although Alexander did give papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded, no other source claims papal support before the invasion. William's army assembled during the summer while an invasion fleet in Normandy was constructed. Although the army and fleet were ready by early August, adverse winds kept the ships in Normandy until late September. There were probably other reasons for William's delay, including intelligence reports from England revealing that Harold's forces were deployed along the coast. William would have preferred to delay the invasion until he could make an unopposed landing.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 120–123]
Landing and Harold's march south
The Normans crossed to England a few days after Harold's victory over the Norwegians at Stamford Bridge on 25 September, following the dispersal of Harold's naval force. They landed at Pevensey
Pevensey ( ) is a village and civil parish in the Wealden district of East Sussex, England. The main village is located north-east of Eastbourne, one mile (1.6 km) inland from Pevensey Bay. The settlement of Pevensey Bay forms part ...
in Sussex on 28 September and erected a wooden castle at Hastings
Hastings () is a large seaside town and borough in East Sussex on the south coast of England,
east to the county town of Lewes and south east of London. The town gives its name to the Battle of Hastings, which took place to the north-west ...
, from which they raided the surrounding area.[Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 79–89] This ensured supplies for the army, and as Harold and his family held many of the lands in the area, it weakened William's opponent and made him more likely to attack to put an end to the raiding.[Marren ''1066'' p. 98]
Harold, after defeating his brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada in the north, left much of his force there, including Morcar and Edwin, and marched the rest of his army south to deal with the threatened Norman invasion.[Carpenter ''Struggle for Mastery'' p. 72] It is unclear when Harold learned of William's landing, but it was probably while he was travelling south. Harold stopped in London for about a week before reaching Hastings, so it is likely that he took a second week to march south, averaging about per day,[Marren ''1066'' p. 93] for the nearly to London.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 124] Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans, William's scouts reported the English arrival to the duke. The exact events preceding the battle remain obscure, with contradictory accounts in the sources, but all agree that William led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy.[Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 180–182] Harold had taken up a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill (present-day Battle, East Sussex
Battle is a small town and civil parish in the local government district of Rother in East Sussex, England. It lies south-east of London, east of Brighton and east of Lewes. Hastings is to the south-east and Bexhill-on-Sea to the south. ...
), about from William's castle at Hastings.[Marren ''1066'' pp. 99–100]
Contemporary sources do not give reliable data on the size and composition of Harold's army, although two Norman sources give figures of 1.2 million or 400,000 men.[Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' p. 128] Recent historians have suggested figures of between 5000 and 13,000 for Harold's army at Hastings,[Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 130–133] but most agree on a range of between 7000 and 8000 English troops.[Gravett ''Hastings'' pp. 28–34][Marren ''1066'' p. 105] These men would have comprised a mix of the ''fyrd
A fyrd () was a type of early Anglo-Saxon army that was mobilised from freemen or paid men to defend their Shire's lords estate, or from selected representatives to join a royal expedition. Service in the fyrd was usually of short duration and ...
'' (militia mainly composed of foot soldiers) and the ''housecarls
A housecarl ( on, húskarl; oe, huscarl) was a non-servile manservant or household bodyguard in medieval Northern Europe.
The institution originated amongst the Norsemen of Scandinavia, and was brought to Anglo-Saxon England by the Danish c ...
'', or nobleman's personal troops, who usually also fought on foot. The main difference between the two types was in their armour; the ''housecarls'' used better protecting armour than that of the ''fyrd''. The English army does not appear to have had many archers, although some were present.[ The identities of few of the Englishmen at Hastings are known; the most important were Harold's brothers ]Gyrth
Gyrth Godwinson (Old English: ''Gyrð Godƿinson''; 1032 – 14 October 1066) was the fourth son of Earl Godwin, and thus a younger brother of Harold Godwinson. He went with his eldest brother Sweyn into exile to Flanders in 1051, but unlike S ...
and Leofwine.[ About 18 other named individuals can reasonably be assumed to have fought with Harold at Hastings, including two other relatives.][
]
Hastings
The battle began at about 9 am on 14 October 1066 and lasted all day, but while a broad outline is known, the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts in the sources.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 126] Although the numbers on each side were probably about equal, William had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot soldiers and few archers.[Carpenter ''Struggle for Mastery'' p. 73] The English soldiers formed up as a shield wall
A shield wall ( or in Old English, in Old Norse) is a military formation that was common in ancient and medieval warfare. There were many slight variations of this formation,
but the common factor was soldiers standing shoulder to shoulder ...
along the ridge, and were at first so effective that William's army was thrown back with heavy casualties. Some of William's Breton troops panicked and fled, and some of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons. Norman cavalry then attacked and killed the pursuing troops. While the Bretons were fleeing, rumours swept the Norman forces that the duke had been killed, but William rallied his troops. Twice more the Normans made feigned withdrawals, tempting the English into pursuit, and allowing the Norman cavalry to attack them repeatedly.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 127–128] The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon, but it appears that the decisive event was the death of Harold, about which different stories are told. William of Jumieges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke. The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold's death by an arrow to the eye, but this may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th-century stories that Harold had died from an arrow wound to the head.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 129] Other sources stated that no one knew how Harold died because the press of battle was so tight around the king that the soldiers could not see who struck the fatal blow.[Marren ''1066'' p. 137] William of Poitiers gives no details at all about Harold's death.[Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 77]
Aftermath of Hastings
The day after the battle, Harold's body was identified, either by his armour or marks on his body. The bodies of the English dead, who included some of Harold's brothers and his ''housecarls'', were left on the battlefield,[ although some were removed by relatives later.][Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 81] Gytha, Harold's mother, offered the victorious duke the weight of her son's body in gold for its custody, but her offer was refused. William ordered that Harold's body be thrown into the sea, but whether that took place is unclear.[ Another story relates that Harold was buried at the top of a cliff.][Marren ''1066'' p. 146] Waltham Abbey
Waltham Abbey is a town and civil parish in the Epping Forest District of Essex, within the metropolitan and urban area of London, England, north-east of Charing Cross. It lies on the Greenwich Meridian, between the River Lea in the west and ...
, which had been founded by Harold, later claimed that his body had been buried there secretly.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 131] Later legends claimed that Harold did not die at Hastings, but escaped and became a hermit at Chester.[
After his victory at Hastings, William expected to receive the submission of the surviving English leaders, but instead ]Edgar the Ætheling
Edgar is a commonly used English given name, from an Anglo-Saxon name ''Eadgar'' (composed of '' ead'' "rich, prosperous" and ''gar'' "spear").
Like most Anglo-Saxon names, it fell out of use by the later medieval period; it was, however, rev ...
was proclaimed king by the Witenagemot, with the support of Earls Edwin and Morcar, Stigand
Stigand (died 1072) was an Anglo-Saxon churchman in pre-Norman Conquest England who became Archbishop of Canterbury. His birth date is unknown, but by 1020 he was serving as a royal chaplain and advisor. He was named Bishop of Elmham in 10 ...
, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and Ealdred, the Archbishop of York.[Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 204–205] William therefore advanced, marching around the coast of Kent
Kent is a county in South East England and one of the home counties. It borders Greater London to the north-west, Surrey to the west and East Sussex to the south-west, and Essex to the north across the estuary of the River Thames; it faces ...
to London. He defeated an English force that attacked him at Southwark, but being unable to storm London Bridge
Several bridges named London Bridge have spanned the River Thames between the City of London and Southwark, in central London. The current crossing, which opened to traffic in 1973, is a box girder bridge built from concrete and steel. It r ...
he sought to reach the capital by a more circuitous route.[Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 205–206]
William moved up the Thames
The River Thames ( ), known alternatively in parts as the River Isis, is a river that flows through southern England including London. At , it is the longest river entirely in England and the second-longest in the United Kingdom, after the R ...
valley to cross the river at Wallingford, Berkshire; while there he received the submission of Stigand. He then travelled north-east along the Chilterns, before advancing towards London from the north-west, fighting further engagements against forces from the city. Having failed to muster an effective military response, Edgar's leading supporters lost their nerve, and the English leaders surrendered to William at Berkhamsted
Berkhamsted ( ) is a historic market town in Hertfordshire, England, in the Bulbourne valley, north-west of London. The town is a civil parish with a town council within the borough of Dacorum which is based in the neighbouring large new town ...
, Hertfordshire. William was acclaimed King of England and crowned by Ealdred on 25 December 1066, in Westminster Abbey
Westminster Abbey, formally titled the Collegiate Church of Saint Peter at Westminster, is an historic, mainly Gothic church in the City of Westminster, London, England, just to the west of the Palace of Westminster. It is one of the United ...
.[ The new king attempted to conciliate the remaining English nobility by confirming Morcar, Edwin and Waltheof, the Earl of Northumbria, in their lands as well as giving some land to ]Edgar the Ætheling
Edgar is a commonly used English given name, from an Anglo-Saxon name ''Eadgar'' (composed of '' ead'' "rich, prosperous" and ''gar'' "spear").
Like most Anglo-Saxon names, it fell out of use by the later medieval period; it was, however, rev ...
. William remained in England until March 1067, when he returned to Normandy with English prisoners, including Stigand, Morcar, Edwin, Edgar the Ætheling, and Waltheof.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 138–139]
English resistance
First rebellions
Despite the submission of the English nobles, resistance continued for several years.[ William left control of England in the hands of his half-brother ]Odo
Odo or ODO may refer to:
People
* Odo, a given name; includes a list of people and fictional characters with the name
* Franklin Odo (born 1939), Japanese-American historian
* Seikichi Odo (1927–2002), Japanese karateka
* Yuya Odo (born 1990), J ...
and one of his closest supporters, William fitzOsbern
William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford, Lord of Breteuil ( 1011 – 22 February 1071), was a relative and close counsellor of William the Conqueror and one of the great magnates of early Norman England. FitzOsbern was created Earl of Hereford ...
.[ In 1067 rebels in Kent launched an unsuccessful attack on Dover Castle in combination with ]Eustace II of Boulogne
Eustace II, (), also known as Eustace aux Grenons ("Eustace with long moustaches"),Heather J. Tanner, 'Eustace (II), count of Boulogne (d. c.1087)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004. was Count of Boulogne fro ...
.[Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 212] The Shropshire
Shropshire (; alternatively Salop; abbreviated in print only as Shrops; demonym Salopian ) is a landlocked historic county in the West Midlands region of England. It is bordered by Wales to the west and the English counties of Cheshire to th ...
landowner Eadric the Wild
Eadric ''the Wild'' (or Eadric ''Silvaticus''), also known as Wild Edric, Eadric ''Cild'' (or ''Child'') and Edric ''the Forester'', was an Anglo-Saxon magnate of Shropshire and Herefordshire who led English resistance to the Norman Conquest, acti ...
, in alliance with the Welsh rulers of Gwynedd
Gwynedd (; ) is a county and preserved county (latter with differing boundaries; includes the Isle of Anglesey) in the north-west of Wales. It shares borders with Powys, Conwy County Borough, Denbighshire, Anglesey over the Menai Strait, and C ...
and Powys
Powys (; ) is a Local government in Wales#Principal areas, county and Preserved counties of Wales, preserved county in Wales. It is named after the Kingdom of Powys which was a Welsh succession of states, successor state, petty kingdom and princi ...
, raised a revolt in western Mercia
la, Merciorum regnum
, conventional_long_name=Kingdom of Mercia
, common_name=Mercia
, status=Kingdom
, status_text=Independent kingdom (527–879)Client state of Wessex ()
, life_span=527–918
, era=Heptarchy
, event_start=
, date_start=
, ye ...
, fighting Norman forces based in Hereford
Hereford () is a cathedral city, civil parish and the county town of Herefordshire, England. It lies on the River Wye, approximately east of the border with Wales, south-west of Worcester and north-west of Gloucester. With a population ...
.[ These events forced William to return to England at the end of 1067.][ In 1068 William besieged rebels in Exeter, including Harold's mother Gytha, and after suffering heavy losses managed to negotiate the town's surrender.][Walker ''Harold'' pp. 186–190] In May, William's wife Matilda
Matilda or Mathilda may refer to:
Animals
* Matilda (chicken) (1990–2006), World's Oldest Living Chicken record holder
* Matilda (horse) (1824–1846), British Thoroughbred racehorse
* Matilda, a dog of the professional wrestling tag-team The ...
was crowned queen at Westminster, an important symbol of William's growing international stature.[ Later in the year Edwin and Morcar raised a revolt in Mercia with Welsh assistance, while Gospatric, the newly appointed Earl of Northumbria, led a rising in Northumbria, which had not yet been occupied by the Normans. These rebellions rapidly collapsed as William moved against them, building castles and installing garrisons as he had already done in the south.][Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 214–215] Edwin and Morcar again submitted, while Gospatric fled to Scotland, as did Edgar the Ætheling and his family, who may have been involved in these revolts.[Williams ''English and the Norman Conquest'' pp. 24–27] Meanwhile, Harold's sons, who had taken refuge in Ireland, raided Somerset
( en, All The People of Somerset)
, locator_map =
, coordinates =
, region = South West England
, established_date = Ancient
, established_by =
, preceded_by =
, origin =
, lord_lieutenant_office =Lord Lieutenant of Somerset
, lord_ ...
, Devon and Cornwall
Cornwall (; kw, Kernow ) is a historic county and ceremonial county in South West England. It is recognised as one of the Celtic nations, and is the homeland of the Cornish people. Cornwall is bordered to the north and west by the Atlantic ...
from the sea.[Williams ''English and the Norman Conquest'' pp. 20–21]
Revolts of 1069
Early in 1069 the newly installed Norman Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Comines
Robert de Comines (died 28 January 1069) (also Robert de Comines, Robert de Comyn) was very briefly Earl of Northumbria.
Life
His name suggests that he originally came from Comines, then in the County of Flanders, and entered the following of W ...
, and several hundred soldiers accompanying him were massacred at Durham; the Northumbrian rebellion was joined by Edgar, Gospatric, Siward Barn
Siward Barn ( ang, Sigeweard Bearn) was an 11th-century English thegn and landowner-warrior. He appears in the extant sources in the period following the Norman Conquest of England, joining the northern resistance to William the Conqueror by th ...
and other rebels who had taken refuge in Scotland. The castellan of York, Robert fitzRichard, was defeated and killed, and the rebels besieged the Norman castle at York. William hurried north with an army, defeated the rebels outside York and pursued them into the city, massacring the inhabitants and bringing the revolt to an end.[Williams ''English and the Norman Conquest'' pp. 27–34] He built a second castle at York, strengthened Norman forces in Northumbria and then returned south. A subsequent local uprising was crushed by the garrison of York.[ Harold's sons launched a second raid from Ireland and were defeated at the ]Battle of Northam
The Battle of Northam was fought in Northam, Devon in 1069 between a Norman force led by Brian of Brittany and an Anglo Saxon army commanded by Godwin and Edmund, two sons of the late English king Harold Godwinson. The Normans inflicted heav ...
in Devon by Norman forces under Count Brian
Brian (sometimes spelled Bryan in English) is a male given name of Irish and Breton origin, as well as a surname of Occitan origin. It is common in the English-speaking world.
It is possible that the name is derived from an Old Celtic word me ...
, a son of Eudes, Count of Penthièvre.[Williams ''English and the Norman Conquest'' p. 35] In August or September 1069 a large fleet sent by Sweyn II of Denmark
Sweyn Estridsson Ulfsson ( on, Sveinn Ástríðarson, da, Svend Estridsen; – 28 April 1076) was King of Denmark (being Sweyn II) from 1047 until his death in 1076. He was the son of Ulf Thorgilsson and Estrid Svendsdatter, and the grandson ...
arrived off the coast of England, sparking a new wave of rebellions across the country. After abortive raids in the south, the Danes joined forces with a new Northumbrian uprising, which was also joined by Edgar, Gospatric and the other exiles from Scotland as well as Waltheof. The combined Danish and English forces defeated the Norman garrison at York, seized the castles and took control of Northumbria, although a raid into Lincolnshire led by Edgar was defeated by the Norman garrison of Lincoln
Lincoln most commonly refers to:
* Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865), the sixteenth president of the United States
* Lincoln, England, cathedral city and county town of Lincolnshire, England
* Lincoln, Nebraska, the capital of Nebraska, U.S.
* Lincol ...
.[Williams ''English and the Norman Conquest'' pp. 35–41]
At the same time resistance flared up again in western Mercia, where the forces of Eadric the Wild, together with his Welsh allies and further rebel forces from Cheshire
Cheshire ( ) is a ceremonial and historic county in North West England, bordered by Wales to the west, Merseyside and Greater Manchester to the north, Derbyshire to the east, and Staffordshire and Shropshire to the south. Cheshire's county t ...
and Shropshire, attacked the castle at Shrewsbury
Shrewsbury ( , also ) is a market town, civil parish, and the county town of Shropshire, England, on the River Severn, north-west of London; at the 2021 census, it had a population of 76,782. The town's name can be pronounced as either 'Sh ...
. In the southwest, rebels from Devon and Cornwall attacked the Norman garrison at Exeter but were repulsed by the defenders and scattered by a Norman relief force under Count Brian. Other rebels from Dorset, Somerset and neighbouring areas besieged Montacute Castle but were defeated by a Norman army gathered from London, Winchester and Salisbury under Geoffrey de Montbray, Geoffrey of Coutances.[ Meanwhile, William attacked the Danes, who had moored for the winter south of the Humber in Lincolnshire, and drove them back to the north bank. Leaving Robert of Mortain in charge of Lincolnshire, he turned west and defeated the Mercian rebels in battle at Stafford. When the Danes attempted to return to Lincolnshire, the Norman forces there again drove them back across the Humber. William advanced into Northumbria, defeating an attempt to block his crossing of the swollen River Aire at Pontefract. The Danes fled at his approach, and he occupied York. He bought off the Danes, who agreed to leave England in the spring, and during the winter of 1069–70 his forces systematically devastated Northumbria in the Harrying of the North, subduing all resistance.][ As a symbol of his renewed authority over the north, William ceremonially wore his crown at York on Christmas Day 1069.][
In early 1070, having secured the submission of Waltheof and Gospatric, and driven Edgar and his remaining supporters back to Scotland, William returned to Mercia, where he based himself at Chester and crushed all remaining resistance in the area before returning to the south.][ Papal legates arrived and at Easter re-crowned William, which would have symbolically reasserted his right to the kingdom. William also oversaw a purge of prelates from the Church, most notably Stigand, who was deposed from Canterbury. The papal legates also imposed penances on William and those of his supporters who had taken part in Hastings and the subsequent campaigns.][Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 145–146] As well as Canterbury, the see of York had become vacant following the death of Ealdred in September 1069. Both sees were filled by men loyal to William: Lanfranc, abbot of William's foundation at Abbey of Saint-Étienne, Caen, Caen, received Canterbury while Thomas of Bayeux, one of William's chaplains, was installed at York. Some other bishoprics and abbeys also received new bishops and abbots and William confiscated some of the wealth of the English monasteries, which had served as repositories for the assets of the native nobles.[Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 56]
Danish troubles
In 1070 Sweyn II of Denmark arrived to take personal command of his fleet and renounced the earlier agreement to withdraw, sending troops into the Fens to join forces with English rebels led by Hereward the Wake, at that time based on the Isle of Ely. Sweyn soon accepted a further payment of Danegeld from William, and returned home.[Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 221–222] After the departure of the Danes the Fenland rebels remained at large, protected by the marshes, and early in 1071 there was a final outbreak of rebel activity in the area. Edwin and Morcar again turned against William, and although Edwin was quickly betrayed and killed, Morcar reached Ely, Cambridgeshire, Ely, where he and Hereward were joined by exiled rebels who had sailed from Scotland. William arrived with an army and a fleet to finish off this last pocket of resistance. After some costly failures the Normans managed to construct a pontoon to reach the Isle of Ely, defeated the rebels at the bridgehead and stormed the island, marking the effective end of English resistance.[Williams ''English and the Norman Conquest'' pp. 49–57] Morcar was imprisoned for the rest of his life; Hereward was pardoned and had his lands returned to him.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 146–147]
Last resistance
William faced difficulties in his continental possessions in 1071,[Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 225–226] but in 1072 he returned to England and marched north to confront King Malcolm III of Scotland. This campaign, which included a land army supported by a fleet, resulted in the Treaty of Abernethy in which Malcolm expelled Edgar the Ætheling from Scotland and agreed to some degree of subordination to William.[ The exact status of this subordination was unclear – the treaty merely stated that Malcolm became William's man. Whether this meant only for Cumbria and Lothian or for the whole Scottish kingdom was left ambiguous.][Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 227]
In 1075, during William's absence, Ralph de Gael, the Earl of Norfolk, and Roger de Breteuil, 2nd Earl of Hereford, Roger de Breteuil the Earl of Hereford, conspired to overthrow him in the Revolt of the Earls.[ The exact reason for the rebellion is unclear, but it was launched at the wedding of Ralph to a relative of Roger's, held at Exning. Another earl, Waltheof, despite being one of William's favourites, was also involved, and some Breton lords were ready to offer support. Ralph also requested Danish aid. William remained in Normandy while his men in England subdued the revolt. Roger was unable to leave his stronghold in Herefordshire because of efforts by Wulfstan (died 1095), Wulfstan, the Bishop of Worcester, and Æthelwig, the Abbot of Evesham. Ralph was bottled up in Norwich Castle by the combined efforts of Odo of Bayeux, Geoffrey of Coutances, Richard fitz Gilbert, Richard fitzGilbert, and William de Warenne, 1st Earl of Surrey, William de Warenne. Norwich was besieged and surrendered, and Ralph went into exile. Meanwhile, the Danish king's brother, Canute IV of Denmark, Cnut, had finally arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships, but he was too late as Norwich had already surrendered. The Danes then raided along the coast before returning home.][ William did not return to England until later in 1075, to deal with the Danish threat and the aftermath of the rebellion, celebrating Christmas at Winchester.][Bates ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 181–182] Roger and Waltheof were kept in prison, where Waltheof was executed in May 1076. By that time William had returned to the continent, where Ralph was continuing the rebellion from Brittany.[Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' pp. 231–233]
Control of England
Once England had been conquered, the Normans faced many challenges in maintaining control.[Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' pp. 102–105] They were few in number compared to the native English population; including those from other parts of France, historians estimate the number of Norman landholders at around 8000.[Carpenter ''Struggle for Mastery'' pp. 82–83] William's followers expected and received lands and titles in return for their service in the invasion,[Carpenter ''Struggle for Mastery'' pp. 79–80] but William claimed ultimate possession of the land in England over which his armies had given him ''de facto'' control, and asserted the right to dispose of it as he saw fit.[ Henceforth, all land was "held" directly from the king in Feudal land tenure, feudal tenure in return for military service.][Carpenter ''Struggle for Mastery'' p. 84] A Norman lord typically had properties scattered piecemeal throughout England and Normandy, and not in a single geographic block.[Carpenter ''Struggle for Mastery'' pp. 83–84]
To find the lands to compensate his Norman followers, William initially confiscated the estates of all the English lords who had fought and died with Harold and redistributed part of their lands.[Carpenter ''Struggle for Mastery'' pp. 75–76] These confiscations led to revolts, which resulted in more confiscations, a cycle that continued for five years after the Battle of Hastings.[ To put down and prevent further rebellions the Normans constructed castles and fortifications in unprecedented numbers,][Chibnall ''Anglo-Norman England'' pp. 11–13] initially mostly on the motte-and-bailey pattern.[Kaufman and Kaufman ''Medieval Fortress'' p. 110] Historian Robert Liddiard remarks that "to glance at the urban landscape of Norwich, Durham or Lincoln is to be forcibly reminded of the impact of the Norman invasion". William and his barons also exercised tighter control over inheritance of property by widows and daughters, often forcing marriages to Normans.[Carpenter ''Struggle for Mastery'' p. 89]
A measure of William's success in taking control is that, from 1072 until the French invasion of Normandy (1202–1204), Capetian conquest of Normandy in 1204, William and his successors were largely absentee rulers. For example, after 1072, William spent more than 75 per cent of his time in France rather than England. While he needed to be personally present in Normandy to defend the realm from foreign invasion and put down internal revolts, he set up royal administrative structures that enabled him to rule England from a distance.[Carpenter ''Struggle for Mastery'' p. 91]
Consequences
Elite replacement
A direct consequence of the invasion was the almost total elimination of the old English aristocracy and the loss of English control over the Catholic Church in England. William systematically dispossessed English landowners and conferred their property on his continental followers. The Domesday Book
Domesday Book () – the Middle English spelling of "Doomsday Book" – is a manuscript record of the "Great Survey" of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 by order of King William I, known as William the Conqueror. The manusc ...
of 1086 meticulously documents the impact of this colossal programme of expropriation, revealing that by that time only about 5 per cent of land in England south of the River Tees, Tees was left in English hands. Even this tiny residue was further diminished in the decades that followed, the elimination of native landholding being most complete in southern parts of the country.
Natives were also removed from high governmental and ecclesiastical offices. After 1075 all earldoms were held by Normans, and Englishmen were only occasionally appointed as sheriffs. Likewise in the Church, senior English office-holders were either expelled from their positions or kept in place for their lifetimes and replaced by foreigners when they died. By 1096 no bishopric was held by any Englishman, and English abbots became uncommon, especially in the larger monasteries.
English emigration
Following the conquest, many Anglo-Saxons, including groups of nobles, fled the country[Ciggaar ''Western Travellers'' pp. 140–141] for Scotland, Ireland, or Scandinavia.[Daniell ''From Norman Conquest to Magna Carta'' pp. 13–14] Members of King Harold Godwinson's family sought refuge in Ireland and used their bases in that country for unsuccessful invasions of England.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 140–141] The largest single exodus occurred in the 1070s, when a group of Anglo-Saxons in a fleet of 235 ships sailed for the Byzantine Empire.[ The empire became a popular destination for many English nobles and soldiers, as the Byzantines were in need of mercenaries.][ The English became the predominant element in the elite Varangian Guard, until then a largely Scandinavian unit, from which the emperor's bodyguard was drawn. Some of the English migrants were settled in Byzantine frontier regions on the Black Sea coast and established towns with names such as New London and New York.][
]
Governmental systems
Before the Normans arrived, Anglo-Saxon governmental systems were more sophisticated than their counterparts in Normandy.[Thomas ''Norman Conquest'' p. 59][Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 187] All of England was divided into administrative units called shires, with subdivisions; the royal court was the centre of government, and a justice system based on local and regional tribunals existed to secure the rights of free men.[Loyn ''Governance of Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 176] Shires were run by officials known as shire reeve (England), reeves or sheriffs.[Thomas ''Norman Conquest'' p. 60] Most medieval governments were always on the move, holding court wherever the weather and food or other matters were best at the moment;[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 31] England had a permanent treasury at Winchester, Hampshire, Winchester before William's conquest.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 194–195] One major reason for the strength of the English monarchy was the wealth of the kingdom, built on the English system of taxation that included a land tax, or the geld. English coinage was also superior to most of the other currencies in use in northwestern Europe, and the ability to mint coins was a royal monopoly.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 36–37] The English kings had also developed the system of issuing writs to their officials, in addition to the normal medieval practice of issuing charters.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 198–199] Writs were either instructions to an official or group of officials, or notifications of royal actions such as appointments to office or a grant of some sort.[Keynes "Charters and Writs" ''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 100]
This sophisticated medieval form of government was handed over to the Normans and was the foundation of further developments.[ They kept the framework of government but made changes in the personnel, although at first the new king attempted to keep some natives in office. By the end of William's reign most of the officials of government and the royal household were Normans. The language of official documents also changed, from Old English to Latin. The forest laws were introduced, leading to the setting aside of large sections of England as royal forest.][ The Domesday survey was an administrative catalogue of the landholdings of the kingdom, and was unique to medieval Europe. It was divided into sections based on the shires, and listed all the landholdings of each tenant-in-chief of the king as well as who had held the land before the conquest.][Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 200–201]
Language
One of the most obvious effects of the conquest was the introduction of Anglo-Norman language, Anglo-Norman, a northern dialect of Old French with limited Nordic influences, as the language of the ruling classes in England, displacing Old English. Norman French words entered the English language, and a further sign of the shift was the usage of names common in France instead of Germanic name, Anglo-Saxon names. Male names such as William (name), William, Robert, and Richard soon became common; female names changed more slowly. The Norman invasion had little impact on placenames, which had changed significantly after earlier Norse activity in the British Isles, Scandinavian invasions. It is not known precisely how much English the Norman invaders learned, nor how much the knowledge of Norman French spread among the lower classes, but the demands of trade and basic communication probably meant that at least some of the Normans and native English were bilingual.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 323–324] Nevertheless, William the Conqueror
William I; ang, WillelmI (Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 33– 9 September 1087), usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first House of Normandy, Norman List of English monarchs#House of Norman ...
never developed a working knowledge of English and for centuries afterwards English was not well understood by the nobility.[Crystal "Story of Middle English" ''English Language'']
Immigration and intermarriage
An estimated 8000 Normans and other continentals settled in England as a result of the conquest, although exact figures cannot be established. Some of these new residents intermarried with the native English, but the extent of this practice in the years immediately after Hastings is unclear. Several marriages are attested between Norman men and English women during the years before 1100, but such marriages were uncommon. Most Normans continued to contract marriages with other Normans or other continental families rather than with the English.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 321–322] Within a century of the invasion, intermarriage between the native English and the Norman immigrants had become common. By the early 1160s, Ailred of Rievaulx was writing that intermarriage was common in all levels of society.[Thomas ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 107–109]
Society
The impact of the conquest on the lower levels of English society is difficult to assess. The major change was the elimination of Slavery in the British Isles, slavery in England, which had disappeared by the middle of the 12th century.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 327] There were about 28,000 slaves listed in ''Domesday Book'' in 1086, fewer than had been enumerated for 1066. In some places, such as Essex, the decline in slaves was 20 per cent for the 20 years.[Clanchy ''England and its Rulers'' p. 93] The main reasons for the decline in slaveholding appear to have been the disapproval of the Church and the cost of supporting slaves who, unlike serfs, had to be maintained entirely by their owners.[Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 94] The practice of slavery was not outlawed, and the ''Leges Henrici Primi'' from the reign of King Henry I continue to mention slaveholding as legal.[
Many of the free peasants of Anglo-Saxon society appear to have lost status and become indistinguishable from the non-free serfs. Whether this change was due entirely to the conquest is unclear, but the invasion and its after-effects probably accelerated a process already under way. The spread of towns and increase in nucleated settlements in the countryside, rather than scattered farms, was probably accelerated by the coming of the Normans to England.][ The lifestyle of the peasantry probably did not greatly change in the decades after 1066.][Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 329] Although earlier historians argued that women became less free and lost rights with the conquest, current scholarship has mostly rejected this view. Little is known about women other than those in the landholding class, so no conclusions can be drawn about peasant women's status after 1066. Noblewomen appear to have continued to influence political life mainly through their kinship relationships. Both before and after 1066 aristocratic women could own land, and some women continued to have the ability to dispose of their property as they wished.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 281–283]
Historiography
Debate over the conquest started almost immediately. The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', when discussing the death of William the Conqueror, denounced him and the conquest in verse, but the king's obituary notice from William of Poitiers, a Frenchman, was full of praise. Historians since then have argued over the facts of the matter and how to interpret them, with little agreement.[ The theory or myth of the "Norman yoke" arose in the 17th century,][Chibnall ''Debate'' p. 6] the idea that Anglo-Saxon society had been freer and more equal than the society that emerged after the conquest.[Chibnall ''Debate'' p. 38] This theory owes more to the period in which it was developed than to historical facts, but it continues to be used to the present day in both political and popular thought.[Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 318–319]
In the 20th and 21st centuries, historians have focused less on the rightness or wrongness of the conquest itself, instead concentrating on the effects of the invasion. Some, such as Richard Southern, have seen the conquest as a critical turning point in history.[Clanchy ''England and its Rulers'' pp. 31–35] Southern stated that "no country in Europe, between the rise of the barbarian kingdoms and the 20th century, has undergone so radical a change in so short a time as England experienced after 1066".[Quoted in Clanchy ''England and its Rulers'' p. 32] Other historians, such as H. G. Richardson and G. O. Sayles, believe that the transformation was less radical.[ In more general terms, Singman has called the conquest "the last echo of the national migrations that characterized the early Middle Ages".][Singman ''Daily Life'' p. xv] The debate over the impact of the conquest depends on how change after 1066 is measured. If Anglo-Saxon England was already evolving before the invasion, with the introduction of feudalism, castles or other changes in society, then the conquest, while important, did not represent radical reform. But the change was dramatic if measured by the elimination of the English nobility or the loss of Old English as a literary language. Nationalistic arguments have been made on both sides of the debate, with the Normans cast as either the persecutors of the English or the rescuers of the country from a decadent Anglo-Saxon nobility.[
]
See also
* Ermenfrid Penitential
* Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland
* Norman invasion of Wales
* Norman conquest of southern Italy
Notes
Citations
References
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External links
Essential Norman Conquest
from Osprey Publishing
Normans – a background to the Conquest
from the BBC
{{Authority control
Norman conquest of England,
1066 in England
1060s conflicts
11th century in England
Duchy of Normandy, Conquest of Engand
England in the High Middle Ages
Military history of England
Military history of Normandy, Conquest of Engand
Succession to the British crown
William the Conqueror