Normal human body-temperature (normothermia, euthermia) is the typical
temperature
Temperature is a physical quantity that expresses quantitatively the perceptions of hotness and coldness. Temperature is measurement, measured with a thermometer.
Thermometers are calibrated in various Conversion of units of temperature, temp ...
range found in
humans
Humans (''Homo sapiens'') are the most abundant and widespread species of primate, characterized by bipedalism and exceptional cognitive skills due to a large and complex brain. This has enabled the development of advanced tools, culture, ...
. The normal human body temperature range is typically stated as .
Human body temperature varies. It depends on sex, age, time of day, exertion level, health status (such as illness and menstruation), what part of the
body
Body may refer to:
In science
* Physical body, an object in physics that represents a large amount, has mass or takes up space
* Body (biology), the physical material of an organism
* Body plan, the physical features shared by a group of anima ...
the measurement is taken at, state of consciousness (waking, sleeping, sedated), and emotions. Body temperature is kept in the normal range by
thermoregulation
Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different. A thermoconforming organism, by contrast, simply adopts the surrounding temperature ...
, in which adjustment of temperature is triggered by the central nervous system.
Methods of measurement
![Clinical thermometer 38](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Clinical_thermometer_38.7.JPG)
Taking a person's temperature is an initial part of a full
clinical examination
In a physical examination, medical examination, or clinical examination, a medical practitioner examines a patient for any possible medical signs or symptoms of a medical condition. It generally consists of a series of questions about the patie ...
. There are various types of
medical thermometer
A medical thermometer (also called clinical thermometer) is a device which is used for measuring human or animal body temperature. The tip of the thermometer is inserted into the mouth under the tongue (''oral'' or ''sub-lingual temperature''), ...
s, as well as sites used for measurement, including:
* In the rectum (rectal temperature)
* In the mouth (oral temperature)
* Under the arm (axillary temperature)
* In the ear (tympanic temperature)
* On the skin of the forehead over the
temporal artery
* Using
heat flux sensor
A heat flux sensor is a transducer that generates an electrical signal proportional to the total heat rate applied to the surface of the sensor. The measured heat rate is divided by the surface area of the sensor to determine the heat flux.
The ...
s
Variations
Temperature control
Temperature control is a process in which change of temperature of a space (and objects collectively there within), or of a substance, is measured or otherwise detected, and the passage of heat energy into or out of the space or substance is ad ...
(
thermoregulation
Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different. A thermoconforming organism, by contrast, simply adopts the surrounding temperature ...
) is a
homeostatic
In biology, homeostasis (British also homoeostasis) (/hɒmɪə(ʊ)ˈsteɪsɪs/) is the state of steady internal, physical, and chemical conditions maintained by living systems. This is the condition of optimal functioning for the organism and ...
mechanism that keeps the organism at optimum
operating temperature, as the temperature affects the rate of
chemical reaction
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the IUPAC nomenclature for organic transformations, chemical transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the pos ...
s. In
human
Humans (''Homo sapiens'') are the most abundant and widespread species of primate, characterized by bipedalism and exceptional cognitive skills due to a large and complex brain. This has enabled the development of advanced tools, cultu ...
s, the average internal temperature is widely accepted to be 37 °C (98.6 °F), a "normal" temperature established in the 1800s. But newer studies show that average internal temperature for men and women is . No person always has exactly the same temperature at every moment of the day. Temperatures cycle regularly up and down through the day, as controlled by the person's
circadian rhythm. The lowest temperature occurs about two hours before the person normally wakes up. Additionally, temperatures change according to activities and external factors.
In addition to varying throughout the day, normal body temperature may also differ as much as from one day to the next, so that the highest or lowest temperatures on one day will not always exactly match the highest or lowest temperatures on the next day.
Normal human body temperature varies slightly from person to person and by the time of day. Consequently, each type of measurement has a range of normal temperatures. The range for normal human body temperatures, taken orally, is .
This means that any oral temperature between is likely to be normal.
The normal human body temperature is often stated as .
In adults a review of the literature has found a wider range of for normal temperatures, depending on the gender and location measured.
Reported values vary depending on how it is measured: oral (under the tongue): (),
internal (
rectal
The rectum is the final straight portion of the large intestine in humans and some other mammals, and the gut in others. The adult human rectum is about long, and begins at the rectosigmoid junction (the end of the sigmoid colon) at the le ...
,
vagina
In mammals, the vagina is the elastic, muscular part of the female genital tract. In humans, it extends from the vestibule to the cervix. The outer vaginal opening is normally partly covered by a thin layer of mucosal tissue called the hymen ...
l): .
A rectal or vaginal measurement taken directly inside the body cavity is typically slightly higher than oral measurement, and oral measurement is somewhat higher than skin measurement. Other places, such as under the arm or in the ear, produce different typical temperatures.
While some people think of these averages as representing normal or ideal measurements, a wide range of temperatures has been found in healthy people.
The body temperature of a healthy person varies during the day by about with lower temperatures in the morning and higher temperatures in the late afternoon and evening, as the body's needs and activities change.
Other circumstances also affect the body's temperature. The core body temperature of an individual tends to have the lowest value in the second half of the sleep cycle; the lowest point, called the
nadir
The nadir (, ; ar, نظير, naẓīr, counterpart) is the direction pointing directly ''below'' a particular location; that is, it is one of two vertical directions at a specified location, orthogonal to a horizontal flat surface.
The direc ...
, is one of the primary markers for
circadian rhythms. The body temperature also changes when a person is hungry, sleepy, sick, or cold.
Natural rhythms
Body temperature normally fluctuates over the day following
circadian rhythms, with the lowest levels around 4a.m. and the highest in the late afternoon, between 4:00 and 6:00 p.m. (assuming the person sleeps at night and stays awake during the day).
Therefore, an oral temperature of would, strictly speaking, be a normal, healthy temperature in the afternoon but not in the early morning.
An individual's body temperature typically changes by about between its highest and lowest points each day.
Body temperature is sensitive to many hormones, so women have a temperature rhythm that varies with the
menstrual cycle, called a ''circamensal'' rhythm.
A woman's
basal body temperature rises sharply after
ovulation
Ovulation is the release of eggs from the ovaries. In women, this event occurs when the ovarian follicles rupture and release the secondary oocyte ovarian cells. After ovulation, during the luteal phase, the egg will be available to be fertilize ...
, as
estrogen
Estrogen or oestrogen is a category of sex hormone responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics. There are three major endogenous estrogens that have estrogenic hormonal ac ...
production decreases and
progesterone increases.
Fertility awareness
Fertility awareness (FA) refers to a set of practices used to determine the fertile and infertile phases of a woman's menstrual cycle. Fertility awareness methods may be used to avoid pregnancy, to achieve pregnancy, or as a way to monitor gyneco ...
programs use this change to identify when a woman has ovulated to achieve or avoid
pregnancy
Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring develops (gestation, gestates) inside a woman, woman's uterus (womb). A multiple birth, multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins.
Pregnancy usually occur ...
. During the
luteal phase
The corpus luteum (Latin for "yellow body"; plural corpora lutea) is a temporary endocrine structure in female ovaries involved in the production of relatively high levels of progesterone, and moderate levels of estradiol, and inhibin A. It is th ...
of the menstrual cycle, both the lowest and the average temperatures are slightly higher than during other parts of the cycle. However, the amount that the temperature rises during each day is slightly lower than typical, so the highest temperature of the day is not very much higher than usual.
Hormonal contraceptives both suppress the circamensal rhythm and raise the typical body temperature by about .
Temperature also may vary with the change of
season
A season is a division of the year based on changes in weather, ecology, and the number of daylight hours in a given region. On Earth, seasons are the result of the axial parallelism of Earth's tilted orbit around the Sun. In temperate and ...
s during each year. This pattern is called a ''circannual'' rhythm.
Studies of seasonal variations have produced inconsistent results. People living in different climates may have different seasonal patterns.
Increased physical fitness increases the amount of daily variation in temperature.
With increased age, both average body temperature and the amount of daily variability in the body temperature tend to decrease.
Elderly patients may have a decreased ability to generate body heat during a fever, so even a
somewhat elevated temperature can indicate a serious underlying cause in
geriatrics
Geriatrics, or geriatric medicine, is a medical specialty focused on providing care for the unique health needs of older adults. The term ''geriatrics'' originates from the Greek γέρων ''geron'' meaning "old man", and ιατρός ''iatros ...
. One study suggested that the average body temperature has also decreased since the 1850s. The study's authors believe the most likely explanation for the change is a reduction in inflammation at the population level due to decreased chronic infections and improved hygiene.
Measurement methods
Different methods used for measuring temperature produce different results. The temperature reading depends on which part of the body is being measured. The typical daytime temperatures among healthy adults are as follows:
* Temperature in the anus (rectum/rectal), vagina, or in the ear (tympanic) is about
* Temperature in the mouth (oral) is about
* Temperature under the arm (axillary) is about
Generally, oral, rectal, gut, and core body temperatures, although slightly different, are well-correlated.
Oral temperatures are influenced by drinking, chewing, smoking, and breathing with the mouth open. Mouth breathing, cold drinks or food, reduce oral temperatures; hot drinks, hot food, chewing, and smoking raise oral temperatures.
Each measurement method also has different normal ranges depending on sex.
Infrared thermometer
As of 2016 reviews of infrared thermometers have found them to be of variable accuracy. This includes tympanic infrared thermometers in children.
Variations due to outside factors
Sleep disturbances also affect temperatures. Normally, body temperature drops significantly at a person's normal bedtime and throughout the night. Short-term
sleep deprivation produces a higher temperature at night than normal, but long-term sleep deprivation appears to reduce temperatures.
Insomnia
Insomnia, also known as sleeplessness, is a sleep disorder in which people have trouble sleeping. They may have difficulty falling asleep, or staying asleep as long as desired. Insomnia is typically followed by daytime sleepiness, low energy, ...
and poor sleep quality are associated with smaller and later drops in body temperature.
Similarly, waking up unusually early, sleeping in,
jet lag
Jet lag is a physiological condition that results from alterations to the body's circadian rhythms caused by rapid long-distance trans-meridian (east–west or west–east) travel. For example, someone flying from New York to London, i.e. from ...
and changes to
shift work
Shift work is an employment practice designed to make use of, or provide service across, all 24 hours of the clock each day of the week (often abbreviated as '' 24/7''). The practice typically sees the day divided into shifts, set periods of ...
schedules may affect body temperature.
Concept
Fever
A temperature ''setpoint'' is the level at which the body attempts to maintain its temperature. When the setpoint is raised, the result is a fever. Most fevers are caused by
infectious disease
An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable di ...
and can be lowered, if desired, with
antipyretic
An antipyretic (, from ''anti-'' 'against' and ' 'feverish') is a substance that reduces fever. Antipyretics cause the hypothalamus to override a prostaglandin-induced increase in temperature. The body then works to lower the temperature, which r ...
medications.
An early morning temperature higher than or a late afternoon temperature higher than is normally considered a fever, assuming that the temperature is elevated due to a change in the hypothalamus's setpoint.
Lower thresholds are sometimes appropriate for elderly people.
The normal daily temperature variation is typically , but can be greater among people recovering from a fever.
An organism at optimum temperature is considered ''afebrile'', meaning "
without fever". If temperature is raised, but the setpoint is not raised, then the result is
hyperthermia
Hyperthermia, also known simply as overheating, is a condition in which an individual's body temperature is elevated beyond normal due to failed thermoregulation. The person's body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates. When extreme ...
.
Hyperthermia
Hyperthermia occurs when the body produces or absorbs more heat than it can dissipate. It is usually caused by prolonged exposure to high temperatures. The heat-regulating mechanisms of the body eventually become overwhelmed and unable to deal effectively with the heat, causing the body temperature to climb uncontrollably. Hyperthermia at or above about is a life-threatening medical emergency that requires immediate treatment. Common symptoms include headache, confusion, and fatigue. If sweating has resulted in dehydration, then the affected person may have dry, red skin.
In a medical setting, mild hyperthermia is commonly called ''heat exhaustion'' or ''heat prostration''; severe hyperthermia is called ''heat stroke''. Heatstroke may come on suddenly, but it usually follows the untreated milder stages. Treatment involves cooling and rehydrating the body; fever-reducing drugs are useless for this condition. This may be done by moving out of direct sunlight to a cooler and shaded environment, drinking water, removing clothing that might keep heat close to the body, or sitting in front of a fan. Bathing in tepid or cool water, or even just washing the face and other exposed areas of the skin, can be helpful.
With fever, the body's core temperature rises to a higher temperature through the action of the part of the brain that controls the body temperature; with hyperthermia, the body temperature is raised without the influence of the heat control centers.
Hypothermia
In hypothermia, body temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and bodily functions. In humans, this is usually due to excessive exposure to cold air or water, but it can be
deliberately induced as a medical treatment. Symptoms usually appear when the body's core temperature drops by below normal temperature.
Basal body temperature
Basal body temperature is the lowest temperature attained by the body during rest (usually during sleep). It is generally measured immediately after awakening and before any physical activity has been undertaken, although the temperature measured at that time is somewhat higher than the true basal body temperature. In women, temperature differs at various points in the
menstrual cycle, and this can be used in the long term to track ovulation both to aid conception or avoid pregnancy. This process is called
fertility awareness
Fertility awareness (FA) refers to a set of practices used to determine the fertile and infertile phases of a woman's menstrual cycle. Fertility awareness methods may be used to avoid pregnancy, to achieve pregnancy, or as a way to monitor gyneco ...
.
Core temperature
Core temperature, also called core body temperature, is the operating temperature of an
organism
In biology, an organism () is any living system that functions as an individual entity. All organisms are composed of cells (cell theory). Organisms are classified by taxonomy into groups such as multicellular animals, plants, and ...
, specifically in deep structures of the body such as the
liver
The liver is a major organ only found in vertebrates which performs many essential biological functions such as detoxification of the organism, and the synthesis of proteins and biochemicals necessary for digestion and growth. In humans, it ...
, in comparison to temperatures of peripheral tissues. Core temperature is normally maintained within a narrow range so that essential enzymatic reactions can occur. Significant core temperature elevation (
hyperthermia
Hyperthermia, also known simply as overheating, is a condition in which an individual's body temperature is elevated beyond normal due to failed thermoregulation. The person's body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates. When extreme ...
) or depression (
hypothermia
Hypothermia is defined as a body core temperature below in humans. Symptoms depend on the temperature. In mild hypothermia, there is shivering and mental confusion. In moderate hypothermia, shivering stops and confusion increases. In severe ...
) over more than a brief period of time is incompatible with human life.
Temperature examination in the
heart
The heart is a muscular organ in most animals. This organ pumps blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system. The pumped blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the body, while carrying metabolic waste such as carbon dioxide to t ...
, using a catheter, is the traditional
gold standard
A gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is based on a fixed quantity of gold. The gold standard was the basis for the international monetary system from the 1870s to the early 1920s, and from the l ...
measurement used to estimate core temperature (oral temperature is affected by hot or cold drinks, ambient temperature fluctuations as well as mouth-breathing). Since catheters are highly invasive, the generally accepted alternative for measuring core body temperature is through rectal measurements. Rectal temperature is expected to be approximately 1 Fahrenheit (or 0.55 Celsius) degree higher than an oral temperature taken on the same person at the same time. Ear thermometers measure temperature from the
tympanic membrane
In the anatomy of humans and various other tetrapods, the eardrum, also called the tympanic membrane or myringa, is a thin, cone-shaped membrane that separates the external ear from the middle ear. Its function is to transmit sound from the a ...
using
infrared
Infrared (IR), sometimes called infrared light, is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with wavelengths longer than those of visible light. It is therefore invisible to the human eye. IR is generally understood to encompass wavelengths from around ...
sensors and also aim to measure core body temperature, since the blood supply of this membrane is directly shared with the
brain
A brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs for senses such as vision. It is the most complex organ in a ve ...
. However, this method of measuring body temperature is not as accurate as rectal measurement and has a low sensitivity for fever, failing to determine three or four out of every ten fever measurements in children.
Ear temperature measurement may be acceptable for observing trends in body temperature but is less useful in consistently identifying and diagnosing fever.
Until recently, direct measurement of core body temperature required either an ingestible device or surgical insertion of a probe. Therefore, a variety of indirect methods have commonly been used as the preferred alternative to these more accurate albeit more invasive methods. The
rectal
The rectum is the final straight portion of the large intestine in humans and some other mammals, and the gut in others. The adult human rectum is about long, and begins at the rectosigmoid junction (the end of the sigmoid colon) at the le ...
or
vagina
In mammals, the vagina is the elastic, muscular part of the female genital tract. In humans, it extends from the vestibule to the cervix. The outer vaginal opening is normally partly covered by a thin layer of mucosal tissue called the hymen ...
l temperature is generally considered to give the most accurate assessment of core body temperature, particularly in hypothermia. In the early 2000s, ingestible
thermistor
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is strongly dependent on temperature, more so than in standard resistors. The word thermistor is a portmanteau of ''thermal'' and ''resistor''.
Thermistors are divided based on their conduction ...
s in
capsule form were produced, allowing the temperature inside the
digestive tract
The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, digestive tract, alimentary canal) is the tract or passageway of the digestive system that leads from the mouth to the anus. The GI tract contains all the major organs of the digestive system, in humans and ...
to be transmitted to an external receiver; one study found that these were comparable in accuracy to rectal temperature measurement.
More recently, a new method using
heat flux sensor
A heat flux sensor is a transducer that generates an electrical signal proportional to the total heat rate applied to the surface of the sensor. The measured heat rate is divided by the surface area of the sensor to determine the heat flux.
The ...
s have been developed. Several research papers show that its accuracy is similar to the invasive methods.
Temperature variation
Hot
* or more – Almost certainly death will occur; however, people have been known to survive up to .
* – Normally death, or there may be serious brain damage, continuous convulsions, and shock. Cardio-respiratory collapse will likely occur.
* – Subject may turn pale or remain flushed and red. They may become comatose, be in severe delirium, vomiting, and convulsions can occur.
* – (
Medical emergency
A medical emergency is an acute injury or illness that poses an immediate risk to a person's life or long-term health, sometimes referred to as a situation risking "life or limb". These emergencies may require assistance from another, qualified ...
) – Fainting, vomiting, severe headache, dizziness, confusion, hallucinations, delirium, and drowsiness can occur. There may also be palpitations and breathlessness.
* – Fainting, dehydration, weakness, vomiting, headache, breathlessness, and dizziness may occur as well as profuse sweating.
* – Severe sweating, flushed, and red. Fast heart rate and breathlessness. There may be exhaustion accompanying this. Children and people with epilepsy may suffer convulsions at this temperature.
* – (Classed as
hyperthermia
Hyperthermia, also known simply as overheating, is a condition in which an individual's body temperature is elevated beyond normal due to failed thermoregulation. The person's body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates. When extreme ...
if not caused by a
fever
Fever, also referred to as pyrexia, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set point. There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using val ...
) – Feeling hot, sweating, feeling thirsty, feeling very uncomfortable, slightly hungry. If this is caused by
fever
Fever, also referred to as pyrexia, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set point. There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using val ...
, there may also be
chills.
Normal
* is a typically reported range for normal body temperature.
Cold
* – Feeling cold, mild to moderate shivering. Body temperature may drop this low during sleep. This can be a normal body temperature for sleeping.
* – (
Hypothermia
Hypothermia is defined as a body core temperature below in humans. Symptoms depend on the temperature. In mild hypothermia, there is shivering and mental confusion. In moderate hypothermia, shivering stops and confusion increases. In severe ...
is less than ) – Intense shivering, numbness and bluish/grayness of the skin. There is the possibility of heart irritability.
* – Severe shivering, loss of movement of fingers, blueness, and confusion. Some behavioral changes may take place.
* – Moderate to severe confusion, sleepiness, depressed reflexes, progressive loss of shivering, slow heartbeat, shallow breathing. Shivering may stop. The subject may be unresponsive to certain stimuli.
* – (
Medical emergency
A medical emergency is an acute injury or illness that poses an immediate risk to a person's life or long-term health, sometimes referred to as a situation risking "life or limb". These emergencies may require assistance from another, qualified ...
) – Hallucinations, delirium, complete confusion, extreme sleepiness that is progressively becoming comatose. Shivering is absent (subject may even think they are hot). Reflex may be absent or very slight.
* – Comatose, very rarely conscious. No or slight reflexes. Very shallow breathing and slow heart rate. Possibility of serious heart rhythm problems.
* – Severe heart rhythm disturbances are likely and breathing may stop at any time. The person may appear to be dead.
* or less – Death usually occurs due to irregular heart beat or respiratory arrest; however, some patients have been known to survive with body temperatures as low as .
There are non-verbal corporal cues that can hint at an individual experiencing a low body temperature, which can be used for those with
dysphasia
Aphasia is an inability to comprehend or formulate language because of damage to specific brain regions. The major causes are stroke and head trauma; prevalence is hard to determine but aphasia due to stroke is estimated to be 0.1–0.4% in th ...
or infants. Examples of non-
verbal cues of
coldness include stillness and being lethargic concerning kinesiological movement, sneezing, unusual paleness of skin among light-skinned people, and, among males, shrinkage, and contraction of the
scrotum
The scrotum or scrotal sac is an anatomical male reproductive structure located at the base of the penis that consists of a suspended dual-chambered sac of skin and smooth muscle. It is present in most terrestrial male mammals. The scrotum co ...
.
Historical understanding
In the 19th century, most books quoted "blood heat" as 98 °F, until a study published the mean (but not the variance) of a large sample as . Subsequently, that mean was widely quoted as "37 °C or 98.4 °F" until editors realized 37 °C is equal to 98.6 °F, not 98.4 °F. The 37 °C value was set by German physician
Carl Reinhold August Wunderlich
Carl Reinhold August Wunderlich (4 August 1815, Sulz am Neckar – 25 September 1877, Leipzig) was a German physician, pioneer psychiatrist, and medical professor. He is known for his measurement of mean normal human body temperature of 37&nbs ...
in his 1868 book, which put temperature charts into widespread clinical use.
[Fischetti, Mark (2018), "Graphic Science: Goodbye, 98.6", ''Scientific American'', vol. 319, no. 6 (December)] Dictionaries and other sources that quoted these averages did add the word "about" to show that there is some variance, but generally did not state how wide the variance is.
References
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Human physiology
Medical terminology
Temperature
Physical examination
Medical signs
Thermoregulation
Thermometers