The Nizari state (the Alamut state) was a
Shia
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad designated Ali, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his S ...
Nizari
The Nizaris ( ar, النزاريون, al-Nizāriyyūn, fa, نزاریان, Nezāriyān) are the largest segment of the Ismaili Muslims, who are the second-largest branch of Shia Islam after the Twelvers. Nizari teachings emphasize independent ...
Ismaili
Isma'ilism ( ar, الإسماعيلية, al-ʾIsmāʿīlīyah) is a branch or sub-sect of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor (imām) to Ja'far al-Sa ...
state founded by
Hassan-i Sabbah
Hasan-i Sabbāh ( fa, حسن صباح) or Hassan as-Sabbāh ( ar, حسن بن الصباح الحميري, full name: Hassan bin Ali bin Muhammad bin Ja'far bin al-Husayn bin Muhammad bin al-Sabbah al-Himyari; c. 1050 – 12 June 1124) was the ...
after he took control of the
Alamut Castle
Alamut ( fa, wikt:الموت, الموت, meaning "eagle's nest") is a ruined mountain fortress located in the Alamut region in the South Caspian Sea, Caspian province of Qazvin near the Masudabad, Qazvin, Masoudabad region in Iran, approximately ...
in 1090 AD, which marked the beginning of an era of Ismailism known as the "Alamut period". Their people were also known as the ''
Assassins
An assassin is a person who commits targeted murder.
Assassin may also refer to:
Origin of term
* Someone belonging to the medieval Persian Ismaili order of Assassins
Animals and insects
* Assassin bugs, a genus in the family ''Reduviida ...
'' or ''Hashashins''.
The state consisted of a nexus of strongholds throughout
Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
and
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
, with their territories being surrounded by huge swathes of hostile territory. It was formed as a result of a religious and political movement of the minority Nizari sect supported by the anti-
Seljuk Seljuk or Saljuq (سلجوق) may refer to:
* Seljuk Empire (1051–1153), a medieval empire in the Middle East and central Asia
* Seljuk dynasty (c. 950–1307), the ruling dynasty of the Seljuk Empire and subsequent polities
* Seljuk (warlord) (di ...
population. Being heavily outnumbered, the Nizaris resisted adversaries by employing
strategic, self-sufficient fortresses and the use of unconventional tactics, notably
assassination of important adversaries and psychological warfare.
Despite
being occupied with survival in their hostile environment, the Ismailis in this period developed a sophisticated outlook and literary tradition.
Almost two centuries after its foundation, the state declined internally and its leadership capitulated to the
invading Mongols, who later massacred many Nizaris. Most of what is known about them is based on descriptions by hostile sources.
Name
In Western sources, the state is called the ''Nizari Ismaili state'', the ''Nizari state'', as well as the ''Alamut state''. In the modern scholarly literature, it is often referred to by the term ''Nizaris (or Nizari Ismailis) of the Alamut period'', with the
demonym
A demonym (; ) or gentilic () is a word that identifies a group of people (inhabitants, residents, natives) in relation to a particular place. Demonyms are usually derived from the name of the place (hamlet, village, town, city, region, province, ...
being ''Nizari''.
It is also known as the ''
Order of Assassins
The Order of Assassins or simply the Assassins ( fa, حَشّاشین, Ḥaššāšīn, ) were a Nizārī Ismāʿīlī order and sect of Shīʿa Islam that existed between 1090 and 1275 CE. During that time, they lived in the mountains of P ...
'', generally referred to as ''Assassins'' or ''Hashshashin''.
Contemporaneous Muslim authors referred to the sect as ''
Batiniyya
Batiniyya ( ar, باطنية, Bāṭiniyyah) refers to groups that distinguish between an outer, exoteric ('' zāhir'') and an inner, esoteric ('' bāṭin'') meaning in Islamic scriptures. The term has been used in particular for an allegoristic ...
'' (), ''Ta'limiyya'' (), ''Isma'iliyya'' (), ''Nizariyya'' (), and the Nizaris are sometimes referred to with abusive terms such as ''
mulhid
Mulhid ( ar, ملحد ', plural ' and ') is an Islamic religious term meaning apostate, heretic, or atheist. The word "Mulhid" has same meaning as for the word "Murtid", a person once reverted to Islam or a born Muslim who later changes his reli ...
'' (, plural: ''malahida'' ; literally "infidel"). The abusive terms ''hashishiyya'' () and ''hashishi'' () were less common, once used in a 1120s Fatimid document by Caliph
al-Amir
Abu Ali al-Mansur ibn al-Musta'li ( ar, أبو علي المنصور بن المستعلي, Abū ʿAlī al-Manṣūr ibn al-Mustaʿlī; 31 December 1096 – 7 October 1130), better known by his regnal name al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah ( ar, الآمر ...
and by late Muslim historians to refer to the Nizaris of Syria, and by some Caspian
Zayidi sources to refer to the Nizaris of Persia.
Nizari coins referred to Alamut as ''kursī ad-Daylam'' (, literally "Capital of
Daylam
Daylam, also known in the plural form Daylaman (and variants such as Dailam, Deylam, and Deilam), was the name of a mountainous region of inland Gilan, Iran. It was so named for its inhabitants, known as the Daylamites.
The Church of the East es ...
").
History
Most
Ismaili
Isma'ilism ( ar, الإسماعيلية, al-ʾIsmāʿīlīyah) is a branch or sub-sect of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor (imām) to Ja'far al-Sa ...
Shia
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad designated Ali, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his S ...
s outside North Africa, mostly in Persia and Syria, came to acknowledge
Nizar ibn al-Mustansir
Abu Mansur Nizar ibn al-Mustansir ( ar, أبو منصور نزار بن المستنصر, Abū Manṣūr Nizār ibn al-Mustanṣir; 1045–1095) was a Fatimid prince, and the oldest son of the eighth Fatimid caliph and eighteenth Isma'ili imam ...
's claim to the Imamate as maintained by
Hassan-i Sabbah
Hasan-i Sabbāh ( fa, حسن صباح) or Hassan as-Sabbāh ( ar, حسن بن الصباح الحميري, full name: Hassan bin Ali bin Muhammad bin Ja'far bin al-Husayn bin Muhammad bin al-Sabbah al-Himyari; c. 1050 – 12 June 1124) was the ...
, and this point marks the fundamental split between Ismaili Shias. Within two generations, the
Fatimid Empire
The Fatimid Caliphate was an Ismaili Shi'a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries AD. Spanning a large area of North Africa, it ranged from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the east. The Fatimids, a dyna ...
would suffer several more splits and eventually implode.
![Alamut](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Alamut.png)
Following his expulsion from Egypt over his support for Nizar, Hassan-i Sabbah found that his co-religionists, the Ismailis, were scattered throughout Persia, with a strong presence in the northern and eastern regions, particularly in
Daylam
Daylam, also known in the plural form Daylaman (and variants such as Dailam, Deylam, and Deilam), was the name of a mountainous region of inland Gilan, Iran. It was so named for its inhabitants, known as the Daylamites.
The Church of the East es ...
,
Khurasan
Greater Khorāsān,Dabeersiaghi, Commentary on Safarnâma-e Nâsir Khusraw, 6th Ed. Tehran, Zavvâr: 1375 (Solar Hijri Calendar) 235–236 or Khorāsān ( pal, Xwarāsān; fa, خراسان ), is a historical eastern region in the Iranian Plate ...
and
Quhistan
Quhistan ( fa, قهستان) or Kohistan (, "mountainous land") was a region of medieval Persia, essentially the southern part of Khurasan. Its boundaries appear to have been south of Khorasan to north, Yazd to West, Sistan to South, Afghanistan to ...
. The Ismailis and other occupied peoples of Persia held shared resentment for the ruling
Seljuk Seljuk or Saljuq (سلجوق) may refer to:
* Seljuk Empire (1051–1153), a medieval empire in the Middle East and central Asia
* Seljuk dynasty (c. 950–1307), the ruling dynasty of the Seljuk Empire and subsequent polities
* Seljuk (warlord) (di ...
s, who had divided the country's farmland into ''
iqtā’'' (fiefs) and levied heavy taxes upon the citizens living therein. The Seljuk ''
amirs
Emir (; ar, أمير ' ), sometimes transliterated amir, amier, or ameer, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or cerem ...
'' (independent rulers) usually held full jurisdiction and control over the districts they administered.
Meanwhile, Persian artisans, craftsmen and lower classes grew increasingly dissatisfied with the Seljuk policies and heavy taxes.
Hassan too, was appalled by the political and economic oppression imposed by the
Sunni
Sunni Islam () is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85–90% of the world's Muslims. Its name comes from the word '' Sunnah'', referring to the tradition of Muhammad. The differences between Sunni and Shia Muslims arose from a disagr ...
Seljuk ruling class on
Shi'ite
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (''khalīfa'') and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, most n ...
Muslims living across Persia.
It was in this context that he embarked on a resistance movement against the Seljuqs, beginning with the search for a secure site from which to launch his revolt.
By 1090 AD, the Seljuk vizier
Nizam al-Mulk
Abu Ali Hasan ibn Ali Tusi (April 10, 1018 – October 14, 1092), better known by his honorific title of Nizam al-Mulk ( fa, , , Order of the Realm) was a Persian scholar, jurist, political philosopher and Vizier of the Seljuk Empire. Rising fro ...
had already given orders for Hassan's arrest and therefore Hassan was living in hiding in the northern town of
Qazvin
Qazvin (; fa, قزوین, , also Romanized as ''Qazvīn'', ''Qazwin'', ''Kazvin'', ''Kasvin'', ''Caspin'', ''Casbin'', ''Casbeen'', or ''Ghazvin'') is the largest city and capital of the Province of Qazvin in Iran. Qazvin was a capital of the ...
, approximately 60 km from the Alamut Castle.
There, he made plans for the capture of the fortress, which was surrounded by a fertile valley whose inhabitants were mainly fellow Shi’i Muslims, the support of whom Hassan could easily gather for the revolt against the Seljuks. The castle had never before been captured by military means and thus Hassan planned meticulously.
Meanwhile, he dispatched his reliable supporters to the Alamut valley to begin settlements around the castle.
In the summer of 1090 AD, Hassan set out from Qazvin towards Alamut on a mountainous route through
Andej. He remained at Andej disguised as a schoolteacher named Dehkhoda until he was certain that a number of his supporters had settled directly below the castle in the village of
Gazorkhan or had gained employment at the fortress itself.
Still in disguise, Hassan made his way into the fortress, earning the trust and friendship of many of its soldiers. Careful not to attract the attention of the castle's
Zaydi
Zaydism (''h'') is a unique branch of Shia Islam that emerged in the eighth century following Zayd ibn Ali‘s unsuccessful rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. In contrast to other Shia Muslims of Twelver Shi'ism and Isma'ilism, Zaydis, ...
lord, Mahdi, Hassan began to attract prominent figures at Alamut to his mission. It has even been suggested that Mahdi's own deputy was a secret supporter of Hassan, waiting to demonstrate his loyalty on the day that Hassan would ultimately take the castle.
The Alamut fortress was eventually captured from Mahdi in 1090 AD and therefore from Seljuk control by Hassan and his supporters without resorting to any violence.
Mahdi's life was spared, and he later received 3,000 gold dinars in compensation.
Capturing of the Alamut Castle marks the founding of the Nizari Ismaili state.
Under the leadership of
Hassan-i Sabbah
Hasan-i Sabbāh ( fa, حسن صباح) or Hassan as-Sabbāh ( ar, حسن بن الصباح الحميري, full name: Hassan bin Ali bin Muhammad bin Ja'far bin al-Husayn bin Muhammad bin al-Sabbah al-Himyari; c. 1050 – 12 June 1124) was the ...
and the succeeding lords of Alamut, the strategy of covert capture was successfully replicated at strategic fortresses across Persia, Syria, and the Fertile Crescent. The Nizari Ismaili created a state of unconnected fortresses, surrounded by huge swathes of hostile territory, and managed a unified power structure that proved more effective than either that in Fatimid Cairo, or Seljuk Bagdad, both of which suffered political instability, particularly during the transition between leaders. These periods of internal turmoil allowed the Ismaili state respite from attack, and even to have such sovereignty as to have minted their own coinage.
The Fortress of Alamut, which was officially called ''kursī ad-Daylam'' (, literally "Capital of
Daylam
Daylam, also known in the plural form Daylaman (and variants such as Dailam, Deylam, and Deilam), was the name of a mountainous region of inland Gilan, Iran. It was so named for its inhabitants, known as the Daylamites.
The Church of the East es ...
") on Nizari coins,
was thought impregnable to any military attack, and was fabled for its heavenly gardens, impressive libraries, and laboratories where philosophers, scientists, and theologians could debate all matters in intellectual freedom.
Organization
The hierarchy (''hudūd'') of the organization of the Nizari Ismailis was as follows:
*''
Imām
Imam (; ar, إمام '; plural: ') is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a worship leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Islamic worship services, lead prayers, serve ...
'' – the descendants of Nizar
*''Dā'ī ad-Du'āt'' – Chief Da'i
*''Dā'ī kabīr'' – Superior Da'i, Great Da'i
*''
Dā'ī'' – Ordinary Da'i, Da'i
*''Rafīq'' – Companion
*''Lāṣiq''. Lasiqs had to swear a special oath of obedience to the Imam.
*''
Fidā'ī''
Imam and ''da'i''s were the elites, while the majority of the sect consisted of the last three grades who were peasants and artisans.
Each territory was under the leadership of a Chief Da'i; a distinct title, ''muhtasham'', was given to the governors of
Quhistan
Quhistan ( fa, قهستان) or Kohistan (, "mountainous land") was a region of medieval Persia, essentially the southern part of Khurasan. Its boundaries appear to have been south of Khorasan to north, Yazd to West, Sistan to South, Afghanistan to ...
. The governors were appointed from Alamut but enjoyed a large degree of local initiative, contributing to the resilience of the movement.
Fall
![Siege of Alamut (1256)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Siege_of_Alamut_%281256%29.jpeg)
As the
Mongols began invading Iran, many Sunni and Shia Muslims (including the prominent scholar
Tusi
''Tusi'', often translated as "headmen" or "chieftains", were hereditary tribal leaders recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties of China, and the Later Lê and Nguyễn dynasties of Vietnam. They ruled certain et ...
) took refuge with the Nizaris of
Quhistan
Quhistan ( fa, قهستان) or Kohistan (, "mountainous land") was a region of medieval Persia, essentially the southern part of Khurasan. Its boundaries appear to have been south of Khorasan to north, Yazd to West, Sistan to South, Afghanistan to ...
. The governor (''muhtasham'') of Quhistan was
Nasir al-Din Abu al-Fath Abd al-Rahim ibn Abi Mansur
Nasir ( ar, ناصر, translit=Nāṣir) is a masculine given name, commonly found in Arabic which can mean "helper" or "one who gives victory" (grammatically the Stem I masculine singular active participle of consonantal verb root ''n-ṣ-r''). ...
, and the Nizaris were under Imam
Ala' al-Din Muhammad.
After the death of the last Khwarezmaian ruler
Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu
Jalal al-Din Mangburni ( fa, جلال الدین مِنکُبِرنی), also known as Jalal al-Din Khwarazmshah (), Minkubirni or Mengu-Berdi (c.1199 – August 1231), was the last Khwarazmshah of the Anushtegin dynasty, Anushteginid dynasty. The ...
, the destruction of the Nizari Ismaili state and the
Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
became the main Mongol objectives. In 1238, the Nizari Imam and the Abbasid caliph sent a joint diplomatic mission to the European kings
Louis IX of France
Louis IX (25 April 1214 – 25 August 1270), commonly known as Saint Louis or Louis the Saint, was King of France from 1226 to 1270, and the most illustrious of the Direct Capetians. He was crowned in Reims at the age of 12, following the ...
and
Edward I of England
Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he ruled the duchies of Aquitaine and Gascony as a vassa ...
to forge an alliance against the invading Mongols, but this was unsuccessful.
The Mongols kept putting pressure on the Nizris of
Quhistan
Quhistan ( fa, قهستان) or Kohistan (, "mountainous land") was a region of medieval Persia, essentially the southern part of Khurasan. Its boundaries appear to have been south of Khorasan to north, Yazd to West, Sistan to South, Afghanistan to ...
and
Qumis. In 1256, Ala' al-Din was succeeded by his young son
Rukn al-Din Khurshah
Rukn al-Dīn al-Hasan ibn Muhammad Khurshāh (or Khwarshāh) () (1230-1257) was the son of ‘Alā’ ad-Dīn Muḥammad III and the 27th Isma'ili Imam. He was also the fifth and final Nizari Isma'ili Imam who ruled at Alamut. The Imam was the ...
as the Nizari Imam. A year later, the main Mongol army under
Hulagu Khan
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulegu ( mn, Хүлэгү/ , lit=Surplus, translit=Hu’legu’/Qülegü; chg, ; Arabic: fa, هولاکو خان, ''Holâku Khân;'' ; 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of West ...
enter Iran via Khorasan. Numerous negotiations between the Nizari Imam and Hulagu Khan were futile. Apparently, the Nizari Imam sought to at least keep the main Nizari strongholds, while the Mongols demanded the full submission of the Nizaris.
On 19 November 1256, the Nizari Imam, who was in the
Maymun-Dizh, surrendered the castle to the besieging Mongols under Hulagu Khan after a fierce conflict.
Alamut
Alamut ( fa, الموت) is a region in Iran including western and eastern parts in the western edge of the Alborz (Elburz) range, between the dry and barren plain of Qazvin in the south and the densely forested slopes of the Mazandaran provinc ...
fell in December 1256 and
Lambsar fell in 1257, with
Gerdkuh
Gerdkuh was a castle of the Nizari Isma'ili state located near Damghan in the region of Qumis (modern-day Semnan Province of Iran).
Gerdkuh is a "fortified mountain"—a high vertical rock of 300 m in height with buildings on its summit a ...
remaining unconquered. In the same year,
Möngke Khan
Möngke ( mn, ' / Мөнх '; ; 11 January 1209 – 11 August 1259) was the fourth khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire, ruling from 1 July 1251, to 11 August 1259. He was the first Khagan from the Toluid line, and made significant reforms ...
, the khagan of the
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous land empire in history. Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe, ...
, ordered a massacre of all Nizari Ismailis of Persia. Rukn al-Din Khurshah himself, who had traveled to
Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million, ...
to meet Möngke Khan, was killed by his personal Mongol guard there. Gerdkuh castle finally fell in 1270, becoming the last Nizari stronghold in Persia to be conquered.
Though the
Mongol
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member of ...
massacre at
Alamut
Alamut ( fa, الموت) is a region in Iran including western and eastern parts in the western edge of the Alborz (Elburz) range, between the dry and barren plain of Qazvin in the south and the densely forested slopes of the Mazandaran provinc ...
was widely interpreted to be the end of Ismaili influence in the region, we learn from various sources that the
Ismailis
Isma'ilism ( ar, الإسماعيلية, al-ʾIsmāʿīlīyah) is a branch or sub-sect of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor (imām) to Ja'far al-Sa ...
’ political influence continued. In 1275, a son of
Rukn al-Din managed to recapture Alamut, though only for a few years. The
Nizari
The Nizaris ( ar, النزاريون, al-Nizāriyyūn, fa, نزاریان, Nezāriyān) are the largest segment of the Ismaili Muslims, who are the second-largest branch of Shia Islam after the Twelvers. Nizari teachings emphasize independent ...
Imam, known in the sources as Khudawand Muhammad, again managed to recapture the fort in the fourteenth century. According to Mar’ashi, the Imam's descendants would remain at Alamut until the late fifteenth century. Ismaili political activity in the region also seems to have continued under the leadership of Sultan Muhammad b. Jahangir and his son, until the latter's execution in 1006/1597.
Faith
Rulers and Imams
; Da'is who ruled at Alamut
#Da'i
Hassan-i Sabbah
Hasan-i Sabbāh ( fa, حسن صباح) or Hassan as-Sabbāh ( ar, حسن بن الصباح الحميري, full name: Hassan bin Ali bin Muhammad bin Ja'far bin al-Husayn bin Muhammad bin al-Sabbah al-Himyari; c. 1050 – 12 June 1124) was the ...
(1090–1124)
#Da'i
Kiya Buzurg-Ummid
Kiyā Buzurg-Ummīd ( fa, کیا بزرگ امید; died 1138) was a ''dawah, dāʿī'' and the second ruler (''da'i'') of the Nizari Ismaili state#Rulers and Imams, Nizari Isma'ili State, ruling Alamut Castle from 1124 to 1138 CE (or 518—532 A ...
(1124–1138)
#Da'i
Muhammad ibn Buzurg-Ummid Muḥammad ibn Buzurg-Ummīd ( fa, محمد بن بزرگ امید) (died February 20, 1162) was the son of Kiyā Buzurg-Ummīd, and the third ruler of the Nizari Ismailis from 1138 until 1162 based in Alamut.
Career
Upon the demise of Kiyā B ...
(1138–1162)
; Concealed Imams at Alamut
#Imam
Ali al-Hadi ibn Nizar
Abū ʿAlī Ḥasan, or ʿAlī, surnamed Al-Hādī (Arabic: علي الهادي بن نزار) (470 AH/1076 CE - 530 AH/1136 CE) was the 20th Ismaili Nizari Imam. Born in Cairo, he was about 17 years old when his predecessor, Imam al-Mustansir, ...
()
#Imam
Al-Muhtadī ibn al-Hādī ''(Muhammad I)'' ()
#Imam
Al-Qāhir ibn al-Muhtadī bi-Quwatullāh / bi-Ahkāmillāh ''(Hassan I)'' ()
; Imams who ruled at Alamut
#Imam
Hassan II 'Ala Dhikrihi's-Salam (1162–1166)
#Imam
Nur al-Din A'la Muhammad II (1166–1210)
#Imam
Jalal al-Din Hasan III (1210–1221)
#Imam
'Ala al-Din Muhammad III (1221–1255)
#Imam
Rukn al-Din Khurshah
Rukn al-Dīn al-Hasan ibn Muhammad Khurshāh (or Khwarshāh) () (1230-1257) was the son of ‘Alā’ ad-Dīn Muḥammad III and the 27th Isma'ili Imam. He was also the fifth and final Nizari Isma'ili Imam who ruled at Alamut. The Imam was the ...
(1255–1256)
Military tactics
Castles
The state had around 200 fortresses overall. The most important one was
Alamut Castle
Alamut ( fa, wikt:الموت, الموت, meaning "eagle's nest") is a ruined mountain fortress located in the Alamut region in the South Caspian Sea, Caspian province of Qazvin near the Masudabad, Qazvin, Masoudabad region in Iran, approximately ...
, the residence of the Lord. The largest castle was
Lambasar Castle
Lambsar ( fa, لمبسر, also pronounced Lamsar), Lamasar, Lambasar, Lambesar () or Lomasar () was probably the largest and the most fortified of the Ismaili castles. The fortress is located in the central Alburz mountains, south of the Caspian ...
, featuring a complex and highly efficient water storage system. The most important fortress in Syria was
Masyaf Castle
Masyaf Castle ( ar, قلعة مصياف), also Masyaf Castle, is a medieval structure in the town of Masyaf in Hama Governorate, Syria, situated in the Orontes Valley, approximately 40.03 kilometres to the west of Hama. It served to protect the ...
, though the castle of
Kahf was probably the main residence of the Syrian Ismaili leader
Rashid al-Din Sinan.
The natural geographical features of the valley surrounding Alamut largely secured the castle's defence. Positioned atop a narrow rock base approximately 180 meters above ground level, the fortress could not be taken by direct military force.
To the east, the Alamut valley is bordered by a mountainous range called
Alamkuh (The Throne of Solomon) between which the
Alamut River
The Alamut River is a river of northern Iran. It flows through the southern Alborz
The Alborz ( fa, البرز) range, also spelled as Alburz, Elburz or Elborz, is a mountain range in northern Iran that stretches from the border of Azerbaijan ...
flows. The valley's western entrance is a narrow one, shielded by cliffs over 350m high. Known as the
Shirkuh
Asad ad-Dīn Shīrkūh bin Shādhī (; ar, أسد الدين شيركوه بن شاذي), also known as Shirkuh, or Şêrko (meaning "lion of the mountains" in Kurdish) (died 22 February 1169) was a Kurdish military commander, and uncle of Salad ...
, the gorge sits at the intersection of three rivers: the
Taliqan,
Shahrud
The Shahrud (Turkish ''Şehrud'' from Persian شاهرود, DMG ''šāh-i rūd'' or ''šāh-rūd'') was a short-necked lute, illustrated in the '' Surname-i Hümayun'', resembling an oud or barbat, but being much larger. The larger size gave th ...
and Alamut River. For much of the year, the raging waters of the river made this entrance nearly inaccessible. Qazvin, the closest town to the valley by land can only be reached by an underdeveloped mule track upon which an enemy's presence could easily be detected given the dust clouds arising from their passage.
The military approach of the Nizari Ismaili state was largely a defensive one, with strategically chosen sites that appeared to avoid confrontation wherever possible without the loss of life.
But the defining characteristic of the Nizari Ismaili state was that it was scattered geographically throughout Persia and Syria. The Alamut castle therefore was only one of a nexus of strongholds throughout the regions where Ismailis could retreat to safety if necessary. West of Alamut in the Shahrud Valley, the major fortress of
Lamasar served as just one example of such a retreat. In the context of their political uprising, the various spaces of Ismaili military presence took on the name ''
dar al-hijra
The term ''dār al-hijra'' ( ar, دار الهجرة, , place of exile/refuge/migration) was originally applied to Medina, the city where Muhammad an his followers sought refuge when exiled from Mecca in 622 (Hijrah). The term was accordingly later ...
'' (place of refuge). The notion of the ''dar al-hijra'' originates from the time of the Prophet Muhammad, who fled with his supporters from intense persecution to safe haven in
Yathrib
Medina,, ', "the radiant city"; or , ', (), "the city" officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, , Turkish: Medine-i Münevvere) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the Holiest sites in Islam, second-holiest city in Islam, ...
.
In this way, the
Fatimid
The Fatimid Caliphate was an Ismaili Shi'a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries AD. Spanning a large area of North Africa, it ranged from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the east. The Fatimids, a dy ...
s found their ''dar al-hijra'' in
North Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
. Likewise during the revolt against the Seljuqs, several fortresses served as spaces of refuge for the Ismailis.
During the mid-12th century the Assassins captured or acquired several fortresses in the
Nusayriyah Mountain Range in coastal Syria, including
Masyaf
Masyaf ( ar, مصياف ') is a city in northwestern Syria. It is the center of the Masyaf District in the Hama Governorate. As of 2004, Masyaf had a religiously diverse population of approximately 22,000 Ismailis, Alawites and Christians. The ci ...
,
Rusafa,
al-Kahf
Al-Kahf ( ar, الكهف, ; The Cave) is the 18th chapter (sūrah) of the Quran with 110 verses ( āyāt). Regarding the timing and contextual background of the revelation (''asbāb al-nuzūl''), it is an earlier "Meccan surah", which mean ...
,
al-Qadmus
Al-Qadmus ( ar, القدموس, also spelled al-Qadmous or Cadmus) is a town in northwestern Syria, administratively part of the Tartus Governorate, located northeast of Tartus and southeast of Baniyas. Nearby localities include Kaff al-Jaa and Ma ...
,
Khawabi
Khawabi ( ar, الخوابي), also spelled Qala'at al-Khawabi ( ar, قلعة الخوابي) is a village and medieval citadel in northwestern Syria, administratively part of the Tartus Governorate, located 20 kilometers northeast of Tartus and 12 ...
,
Sarmin
Sarmin ( ar, سَرْمِين, Sarmīn also spelled Sarmeen) is a town in northwestern Syria, administratively part of the Idlib Governorate, located 15 kilometers southeast of Idlib. It has an altitude of about 390 meters. Nearby localities inclu ...
,
Quliya,
Ulayqa,
Maniqa
Maniqa ( ar, المنيقة) is a castle located in the Syrian Coastal Mountain Range, dated back to the Roman era, it was also known as "Malikas" or "Malghanes" during the Crusader rule.
History
In 1028, Byzantine doux of Antioch Michael Spond ...
,
Abu Qubays and
Jabal al-Summaq. For the most part, the Assassins maintained full control over these fortresses until 1270–73 when the
Mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
sultan
Baibars
Al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari ( ar, الملك الظاهر ركن الدين بيبرس البندقداري, ''al-Malik al-Ẓāhir Rukn al-Dīn Baybars al-Bunduqdārī'') (1223/1228 – 1 July 1277), of Turkic Kipchak ...
annexed them. Most were dismantled afterwards, while those at Masyaf and Ulayqa were later rebuilt. From then on, the Ismailis maintained limited autonomy over those former strongholds as loyal subjects of the Mamluks.
Image:Qazvin - Alamout Castle3.jpg, Alamut Castle
Alamut ( fa, wikt:الموت, الموت, meaning "eagle's nest") is a ruined mountain fortress located in the Alamut region in the South Caspian Sea, Caspian province of Qazvin near the Masudabad, Qazvin, Masoudabad region in Iran, approximately ...
, Persia
Image:Lambesar 2.jpg, Lambsar Castle
Lambsar ( fa, لمبسر, also pronounced Lamsar), Lamasar, Lambasar, Lambesar () or Lomasar () was probably the largest and the most fortified of the Ismaili castles. The fortress is located in the central Alburz mountains, south of the Caspian ...
, Persia
Image:قلعه رودخان1.jpg, Rudkhan Castle
Rudkhan Castle ( fa, قلعه رودخان, glk, رودخان دژ); also Roodkhan Castle, is a brick and stone medieval fortress in Iran that was built by the Talysh people to defend against the Arab invaders during the Muslim conquest of Persi ...
, Persia
Image:Masyaf2.jpg, Masyaf Castle
Masyaf Castle ( ar, قلعة مصياف), also Masyaf Castle, is a medieval structure in the town of Masyaf in Hama Governorate, Syria, situated in the Orontes Valley, approximately 40.03 kilometres to the west of Hama. It served to protect the ...
, Syria
Image:Abu Qubeis2.jpg, Abu Qubays, Syria
Image:Fortress of Qalat el-Mudiq.jpg, Qalaat al-Madiq, Syria
Assassination
In pursuit of their religious and political goals, the Ismailis adopted various military strategies popular in the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
. One such method was that of assassination, the selective elimination of prominent rival figures. The murders of political adversaries were usually carried out in public spaces, creating resounding intimidation for other possible enemies.
Throughout history, many groups have resorted to assassination as a means of achieving political ends. In the Ismaili context, these assignments were performed by commandos called ''fidā’ī'' (, "devotee"; plural ''fidā’iyyūn''). The assassinations were against those whose elimination would most greatly reduce aggression against the Ismailis and, in particular, against those who had perpetrated massacres against the community.
A single assassination was usually employed in favour of widespread bloodshed resultant from factional combat. The first instance of assassination in the effort to establish an Nizari Ismaili state in Persia is widely considered to be the murder of Seljuq vizier,
Nizam al-Mulk
Abu Ali Hasan ibn Ali Tusi (April 10, 1018 – October 14, 1092), better known by his honorific title of Nizam al-Mulk ( fa, , , Order of the Realm) was a Persian scholar, jurist, political philosopher and Vizier of the Seljuk Empire. Rising fro ...
.
Carried out by a man dressed as a
Sufi
Sufism ( ar, ''aṣ-ṣūfiyya''), also known as Tasawwuf ( ''at-taṣawwuf''), is a mystic body of religious practice, found mainly within Sunni Islam but also within Shia Islam, which is characterized by a focus on Islamic spirituality, ...
whose identity remains unclear, the vizier's murder in a Seljuq court is distinctive of exactly the type of visibility for which missions of the fida’is have been significantly exaggerated.
While the Seljuqs and
Crusaders
The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were in ...
both employed assassination as a military means of disposing of factional enemies, during the Alamut period almost any murder of political significance in the Islamic lands was attributed to the Ismailis.
Knives
A knife ( : knives; from Old Norse 'knife, dirk') is a tool or weapon with a cutting edge or blade, usually attached to a handle or hilt. One of the earliest tools used by humanity, knives appeared at least 2.5 million years ago, as evidenced ...
and
dagger
A dagger is a fighting knife with a very sharp point and usually two sharp edges, typically designed or capable of being used as a thrusting or stabbing weapon.State v. Martin, 633 S.W.2d 80 (Mo. 1982): This is the dictionary or popular-use de ...
s were used to kill, and sometimes as a warning, a knife would be placed onto the pillow of a Sunni, who understood the message that he was marked for death.
According to an account by the Armenian historian
Kirakos Gandzaketsi
Kirakos Gandzaketsi (; c. 1200/1202–1271) was an Armenian historian of the 13th century S. Peter Cowe. Kirakos Ganjakec'i or Arewelc'i // Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History / Edited by David Thomas & Alex Mallet. — BRILL, 20 ...
,
See also
*
History of Nizari Ismailism
The History of Nizari Isma'ilism from the founding of Islam covers a period of over 1400 years. It begins with Muhammad's mission to restore to humanity the universality and knowledge of the oneness of the divine within the Abrahamic tradition, thr ...
*
List of assassinations by the Assassins
List of assassinations and assassination attempts attributed to the Assassins (the Nizaris of Alamut), active in Western Asia, Central Asia, and Egypt, in the 11th through 13th centuries.
Background
The Assassins were a group of Nizari Ismai ...
*
Order of Assassins
The Order of Assassins or simply the Assassins ( fa, حَشّاشین, Ḥaššāšīn, ) were a Nizārī Ismāʿīlī order and sect of Shīʿa Islam that existed between 1090 and 1275 CE. During that time, they lived in the mountains of P ...
References
Bibliography
*
*
*Willey, Peter. ''The Eagle's Nest: Ismaili Castles in Iran and Syria''. I.B.Tauris, 2005. .
External links
{{wikiquote, Nizaris
"Nizari Ismaili Concept of Castles" The Institute of Ismaili Studies
States and territories established in 1090
States and territories disestablished in 1273
States and territories disestablished in the 1270s
Medieval Islamic world
Medieval Syria
Medieval history of Iran
Iran–Syria relations
1090 establishments in Asia
1256 disestablishments in Asia
Medieval Iraq
Nizari Ismailism
Seljuk Empire
Secret societies
Establishments in the medieval Islamic world
Militias in Asia
Rebel militia groups
Insurgent groups in Asia
Rebel groups in Iran