Sarai (also transcribed as ''Saraj'' or ''Saray'', from Persian ''sarāy'', "mansion" or "court") was the name of possibly two cities near the lower
Volga
The Volga (; russian: Во́лга, a=Ru-Волга.ogg, p=ˈvoɫɡə) is the List of rivers of Europe#Rivers of Europe by length, longest river in Europe. Situated in Russia, it flows through Central Russia to Southern Russia and into the Cas ...
, that served successively as the effective capitals of the
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde, self-designated as Ulug Ulus, 'Great State' in Turkic, was originally a Mongols, Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the fr ...
, a
Turco-Mongol
The Turco-Mongol or Turko-Mongol tradition was an ethnocultural synthesis that arose in Asia during the 14th century, among the ruling elites of the Golden Horde and the Chagatai Khanate. The ruling Mongol elites of these Khanates eventually ...
kingdom which ruled much of Northwestern
Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an area ...
and
Eastern Europe
Eastern Europe is a subregion of the Europe, European continent. As a largely ambiguous term, it has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, ethnic, cultural, and socio-economic connotations. The vast majority of the region is covered by Russ ...
, in the 13th and 14th centuries. There is considerable disagreement among scholars about the correspondence between specific archaeological sites and the various references to ''Sarāy'', ''Sarāy-i Bātū'' ("the Sarai of
Batu"), ''Sarāy-i Barka'' ("the Sarai of
Berke
Berke Khan (died 1266) (also Birkai; , tt-Cyrl, Бәркә хан) was a grandson of Genghis Khan and a Mongol military commander and ruler of the Golden Horde ( division of the Mongol Empire) who effectively consolidated the power of the Blue ...
"), ''Sarāy al-Jadīd'' ("New Sarai"), and ''Sarāy al-Maḥrūsah'' ("Sarai Blessed
y God
Y, or y, is the twenty-fifth and penultimate letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. According to some authorities, it is the sixth (or seventh ...
) in the historical sources.
Old Sarai
"Old Sarai" was established by the
Mongol
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member of ...
ruler
Batu Khan
Batu Khan ( – 1255),, ''Bat haan'', tt-Cyrl, Бату хан; ; russian: хан Баты́й was a Mongol ruler and founder of the Golden Horde, a constituent of the Mongol Empire. Batu was a son of Jochi, thus a grandson of Genghis Khan. ...
(1227-1255), as indicated by both occasional references to the "Sarai of Batu" ("Sarai Batu", ''Sarāy-i Bātū'') and an explicit statement of the
Franciscan
The Franciscans are a group of related Mendicant orders, mendicant Christianity, Christian Catholic religious order, religious orders within the Catholic Church. Founded in 1209 by Italian Catholic friar Francis of Assisi, these orders include t ...
William of Rubruck
William of Rubruck ( nl, Willem van Rubroeck, la, Gulielmus de Rubruquis; ) was a Flemish Franciscan missionary and explorer.
He is best known for his travels to various parts of the Middle East and Central Asia in the 13th century, including the ...
, who visited Batu in 1253 or 1254, on his way to the court of the Great Khan
Möngke at
Qaraqorum. William's statement, "Sarai, the new town that Baatu is making on the Etilia" is considered the first historical reference to the city; a few passages later he refers to the same settlement as "Sarai and the palace of Baatu". The slightly later Persian historian
ʿAṭā Malik Juwaynī describes this settlement as both "camp" (''muḫayyam'') and "city" (''šahr''), reflecting its dual function, gradual development, and perhaps the lifestyle preferences of its various inhabitants.
As the principal seat of Batu,
Berke
Berke Khan (died 1266) (also Birkai; , tt-Cyrl, Бәркә хан) was a grandson of Genghis Khan and a Mongol military commander and ruler of the Golden Horde ( division of the Mongol Empire) who effectively consolidated the power of the Blue ...
, and their successors, Sarai was effectively the capital of a great empire, although the khan and his court occasionally resided at other sites as well. Various
Rus' princes came to Sarai to pledge allegiance to the Khan and receive his patent of authority (''
yarlyk
A jarlig ( mn, зарлиг, zarlig; russian: ярлык, ''jarlyk'', also transliterated yarlyk in Russian and Turkic, or even more correctly yarlıq, and the Tatar: yarlığ) is an edict or written commandant of Mongol and Chinggisid rulers' ...
''). In 1261, the city became a seat of the Saray diocese of the
Russian Church (
Krutitsy
Krutitsy Metochion (russian: Крути́цкое подворье), full name: Krutitsy Patriarchal Metochion (russian: Крутицкое Патриаршее подворье) is an operating ecclesiastical estate of Russian Orthodox Churc ...
), and in 1315 also of a Catholic diocese. It also served, at least occasionally, as the burial site of khans: when he died in 1266, Berke was buried at the "Sarai of Batu", according to the
Ilkhanid
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate ( fa, ایل خانان, ''Ilxānān''), known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (, ''Qulug-un Ulus''), was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm ...
vizier
Rashīd ad-Dīn Faḍlullāh. Berke had presumably continued the development of the city, promoting the settlement of Muslims and attracting Muslim literati, leading later Muslim accounts to credit him with the foundation of the city; this probably led to references to the "Sarai of Berke", although it is doubtful that there was ever an entirely separate city called "Sarai of Berke" (''two'' cities, ''Sarāy-i Bātū'' and ''Sarāy-i Barka'', are only mentioned by the 15th-century Persian author Muʿīn-ad-Dīn Naṭanzī, who is often confused about the history of the Golden Horde); it certainly cannot be identified with "New Sarai", which was founded more than six decades after Berke's death. The earliest coins struck at Sarai have been identified with issues of Berke from 1264/1265. During the reign of
Mengu-Timur
Munkh Tumur or Möngke Temür ( mn, ᠮᠦᠨᠺᠬᠲᠡᠮᠦᠷ, Мөнхтөмөр; russian: Мангутемир, Mangutemir) (?–1280), son of Toqoqan Khan and Köchu Khatun of Oirat (daughter of Toralchi Küregen and granddaughter of Qu ...
Khan silver coins (
dirham
The dirham, dirhem or dirhm ( ar, درهم) is a silver unit of currency historically and currently used by several Arab and Arab influenced states. The term has also been used as a related unit of mass.
Unit of mass
The dirham was a un ...
s) were again struck with the label "Sarai" in 1272/1273; coins of more consistent standard and issue followed under
Toqta
Tokhta (Toqta, Toktu, Tokhtai, Tochtu or Tokhtogha) (died ) was a khan of the Golden Horde, son of Mengu-Timur and great-grandson of Batu Khan.
His name "Tokhtokh" means "hold/holding" in the Mongolian language.
Early reign under Nogai
In 1 ...
Khan, especially after 1310.
New Sarai
![Golden Horde 1389](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Golden_Horde_1389.svg)
"New Sarai" (''Sarāy al-Jadīd'') is said to have been founded or formally inaugurated by
Öz Beg Khan
Öz is a Turkish surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* Doğan Öz (1934–1978), Turkish prosecutor assassinated during his investigation of the Turkish deep state.
* Emanuel Öz (born 1979), Swedish politician
* Mehmet Öz
Meh ...
in the first half of the 14th century. The earliest explicit reference to a city bearing this name is the notice of the death of Öz Beg in "New Sarai" in March–April 1341 by a nearly contemporary
Mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
author. A statement of the
Timurid Timurid refers to those descended from Timur (Tamerlane), a 14th-century conqueror:
* Timurid dynasty, a dynasty of Turco-Mongol lineage descended from Timur who established empires in Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent
** Timurid Empire of C ...
historian
Ibn ʿArabshāh that "between the building of Sarāy and its devastation there passed sixty-three years" would place the formal founding of "New Saray" 63 lunar years before its sack by
Timur
Timur ; chg, ''Aqsaq Temür'', 'Timur the Lame') or as ''Sahib-i-Qiran'' ( 'Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction'), his epithet. ( chg, ''Temür'', 'Iron'; 9 April 133617–19 February 1405), later Timūr Gurkānī ( chg, ''Temür Kür ...
in the winter of 1395–1396, and so in 1334–1335. The reasons for the relocation of the capital are unclear, as is how substantial such a relocation actually was (since identifications of sites of "Old Sarai" and "New Sarai" are debated), although it is sometimes assumed that the rationale was a change in the level of the
Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea is the world's largest inland body of water, often described as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged sea. An endorheic basin, it lies between Europe and Asia; east of the Caucasus, west of the broad steppe of Central Asia ...
and the extent of the waterways in the
Volga Delta
The Volga Delta is the largest river delta in Europe, and occurs where Europe's largest river system, the Volga River, drains into the Caspian Sea in Russia's Astrakhan Oblast, north-east of the republic of Kalmykia. The delta is located in the ...
.
Sarai and the other major centers of the Golden Horde (like Gülistan, preferred by
Jani Beg
Jani Beg ( fa, , tt-Latn, Canibäk), also known as Djanibek Khan, was a Khan of the Golden Horde from 1342 to 1357, succeeding his father Öz Beg Khan.
Reign
With the support of his mother Taydula Khatun, Jani Beg made himself khan after el ...
) along the lower Volga benefited from trade and exhibited a significant degree of cultural prosperity. While the origin of coins simply labeled "Sarai" remains uncertain, coins labeled "New Sarai" started to be minted from 1342. An
astrolabe
An astrolabe ( grc, ἀστρολάβος ; ar, ٱلأَسْطُرلاب ; persian, ستارهیاب ) is an ancient astronomical instrument that was a handheld model of the universe. Its various functions also make it an elaborate inclin ...
was discovered during excavations at the site, and the city was home to many poets, most of whom are known only by name. These included Hisām Kātib (c. 1375)and Sayf-i Sarāy, who died in 1396.
This prosperity was rapidly threatened by the onset of chronic political and military instability alongside competition for the throne of the Golden Horde after 1361. As the traditional capital and a rich and prestigious prize, Sarai became the target of most claimants to the throne. The
beglerbeg
''Beylerbey'' ( ota, بكلربكی, beylerbeyi, lit=bey of beys, meaning the 'commander of commanders' or 'lord of lords') was a high rank in the western Islamic world in the late Middle Ages and early modern period, from the Anatolian Seljuk ...
Mamai
Mamai (Mongolian Cyrillic: Мамай, tt-Cyrl, Мамай, translit=Mamay; 1325?–1380/1381) was a powerful military commander of the Golden Horde. Contrary to popular misconception, he was not a khan (king), but a warlord and a kingmaker f ...
, for example, took Sarai on behalf of his own puppet khans on four or five separate occasions between 1362 and 1375/1376, losing it to rivals each time. Intervening in the internal conflicts within the Golden Horde, the
Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
n conqueror
Timur
Timur ; chg, ''Aqsaq Temür'', 'Timur the Lame') or as ''Sahib-i-Qiran'' ( 'Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction'), his epithet. ( chg, ''Temür'', 'Iron'; 9 April 133617–19 February 1405), later Timūr Gurkānī ( chg, ''Temür Kür ...
sacked, leveled, and set on fire Sarai in the winter of 1395–1396. The city had partially recovered by 1402, and by the 1420s minted coins again, although the Golden Horde did not completely stabilize. Shortly after the Russian traveler
Afanasij Nikitin passed through in 1469, Sarai was plundered by the
Ushkuyniks
Ushkuyniks (russian: ушкуйники), also ushkuiniks were medieval Novgorodian pirates which operated along the Volga River, the eastern part of Scandinavia, and north of the Ural mountains in 12th-15th century. Some historians see them as ...
, riverine pirates from
Vyatka, in 1471. The
Muscovite
Muscovite (also known as common mica, isinglass, or potash mica) is a hydrated phyllosilicate mineral of aluminium and potassium with formula K Al2(Al Si3 O10)( F,O H)2, or ( KF)2( Al2O3)3( SiO2)6( H2O). It has a highly perfect basal cleavage ...
commander Vasilij Ivanovič Nozdrovatyj Zvenigorodskij and the
Crimean
Crimea, crh, Къырым, Qırım, grc, Κιμμερία / Ταυρική, translit=Kimmería / Taurikḗ ( ) is a peninsula in Ukraine, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, that has been occupied by Russia since 2014. It has a pop ...
prince in Muscovite exile
Nur Devlet
Nur Devlet ( crh, Nur Devlet, نور دولت), was a ''khan'' of the Crimean Khanate (1466–1467, 1467–1469 and 1475–1476) and the son of Hacı I Giray, the founder of Crimean Khanate.
Outline: In 1466 the first Crimean khan di ...
plundered the "Yurt of Batu" in 1480, in a counterattack ordered by
Ivan III of Russia
Ivan III Vasilyevich (russian: Иван III Васильевич; 22 January 1440 – 27 October 1505), also known as Ivan the Great, was a Grand Prince of Moscow and Grand Prince of all Rus'. Ivan served as the co-ruler and regent for his blin ...
in retaliation for the advance of Khan
Aḥmad
Ahmad ( ar, أحمد, ʾAḥmad) is an Arabic male given name common in most parts of the Muslim world. Other spellings of the name include Ahmed and Ahmet.
Etymology
The word derives from the root (ḥ-m-d), from the Arabic (), from the ve ...
against Moscow. The decisive blow seems to have been the sacking and burning of Sarai by Khan
Meñli I Giray
Meñli I Giray ( crh3, I Meñli Geray, ۱منكلى كراى) (1445–1515), also spelled as Mengli I Giray, was a '' khan'' of the Crimean Khanate (1466, 1469–1475, 1478–1515) and the sixth son of Hacı I Giray.
Biography
Struggle f ...
of the
Crimea
Crimea, crh, Къырым, Qırım, grc, Κιμμερία / Ταυρική, translit=Kimmería / Taurikḗ ( ) is a peninsula in Ukraine, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, that has been occupied by Russia since 2014. It has a pop ...
in June 1502. The forces of
Ivan IV of Russia
Ivan IV Vasilyevich (russian: Ива́н Васи́льевич; 25 August 1530 – ), commonly known in English as Ivan the Terrible, was the grand prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547 and the first Tsar of all Russia from 1547 to 1584.
Ivan ...
passed through and destroyed what was left of Sarai while conquering the
Astrakhan Khanate
The Khanate of Astrakhan, also referred to as the Xacitarxan Khanate, was a Tatar state that arose during the break-up of the Golden Horde. The Khanate existed in the 15th and 16th centuries in the area adjacent to the mouth of the Volga river, a ...
in 1556. After it expanded its control over the lower Volga region, Russia established the new fortress cities of (modern) Astrakhan in 1558, and Tsaritsyn (later
Stalingrad
Volgograd ( rus, Волгогра́д, a=ru-Volgograd.ogg, p=vəɫɡɐˈɡrat), geographical renaming, formerly Tsaritsyn (russian: Цари́цын, Tsarítsyn, label=none; ) (1589–1925), and Stalingrad (russian: Сталингра́д, Stal ...
, now
Volgograd
Volgograd ( rus, Волгогра́д, a=ru-Volgograd.ogg, p=vəɫɡɐˈɡrat), geographical renaming, formerly Tsaritsyn (russian: Цари́цын, Tsarítsyn, label=none; ) (1589–1925), and Stalingrad (russian: Сталингра́д, Stal ...
) in 1589.
Descriptions of Sarai
![Ghengisid%27s palace tile decor detail](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Ghengisid%27s_palace_tile_decor_detail.jpg)
The traveler
Ibn Baṭṭūṭa
Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battutah (, ; 24 February 13041368/1369),; fully: ; Arabic: commonly known as Ibn Battuta, was a Berber Maghrebi scholar and explorer who travelled extensively in the lands of Afro-Eurasia, largely in the Muslim wo ...
, who visited in about 1332, has left a description of Sarai (or, as he called it, "the city of al-Sarā, known also as al-Sarā Baraka, which is the capital of the sultan Ūzbak"). Since the foundation of "New Saray" is estimated to have taken place about this time, it is not entirely clear which Sarai was described by Ibn Baṭṭūṭa; the stated distance of 3 days upstream from Astrakhan (al-Ḥājj Tarkhān) is possibly consistent with the site at Selitrennoe Gorodišče, traditionally identified as "Old Sarai", but the archaeological excavations of that site might not support this identification.
The
Damascene Damascene may refer to:
* Topics directly associated with the city of Damascus in Syria:
** A native or inhabitant of Damascus
** Damascus Arabic, the local dialect of Damascus
** Damascus steel, developed for swordmaking
** "Damascene moment", the ...
historian
Aḥmad ibn Faḍlallāh al-ʿUmarī, who died in 1349, has also left a description of Sarai, based on the account of a traveler; once again, it is not entirely clear whether the information refers to Old Sarai or New Sarai, given its date, and references to both Berke and Öz Beg:
In 1623–1624, a Russian merchant,
Fedot Kotov Fedot, ''Федоt'' is a masculine Russian form of given name Theodotus which may refer to:
* Fedot Alekseyevich Popov (died between 1648 and 1654), Russian explorer
* Fedot Shubin
Fedot Ivanovich Shubin (May 28, 1740 – May 24, 1805) is ...
, traveled to
Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
via the lower Volga. He described the site of Sarai:
As so often the case, it is difficult to decide to which Sarai (or other center) this description applies.
Location of Old Sarai and New Sarai
The location and identity of the settlement or settlements called Sarai (which means, after all, simply "palace" and moreover seems to function as a synonym of "horde") have been subject to scholarly disagreement. Arguments have centered on whether or not there were two (or more) capital cities named Sarai and what were their respective locations. One of the influential views that emerged was that "New Sarai" was an enhancement or expansion of "Old Sarai", rather than a separate settlement. The other view was that "Old Sarai" and "New Sarai" were two separate settlements after all, separated by some distance, with "New Sarai" possibly associated with a satellite settlement called Gülistan. Already in the second half of the 18th and first quarter of the 19th century, Sarai was being sought variously at the large ruin fields of Tsarevskoe gorodishche and Selitrennoe gorodishche, both located (some 250 km apart) on the left bank of the
Akhtuba
The Akhtuba (russian: А́хтуба); also transliterated ''Achtuba'' on some maps) is a left distributary of the Volga in southern Russia.
The Akhtuba splits off the Volga above the city Volgograd (at ), and flows toward the Volga Delta and Ca ...
, a left
distributary
A distributary, or a distributary channel, is a stream that branches off and flows away from a main stream channel. Distributaries are a common feature of river deltas. The phenomenon is known as river bifurcation. The opposite of a distributar ...
of the Volga, which remain the most impressive archaeological sites in the area.
![LowerVolga](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/LowerVolga.jpg)
During the late 19th-late 20th century, the dominant view that resulted from earlier studies, was that "Old Sarai" was founded in the 13th century by Batu and located at Selitrennoe gorodishche (previously also called Dzhigit Hadzhi, just northwest of modern
Selitrennoe, about 30 km southeast of
Kharabali
Kharabali (russian: Харабали́; kk, Қарабайлы, ''Qarabaıly'') is a town and the administrative center of Kharabalinsky District in Astrakhan Oblast, Russia, located on the left bank of the Akhtuba River (an arm of the Volga) no ...
and about 120 km north from
Astrakhan
Astrakhan ( rus, Астрахань, p=ˈastrəxənʲ) is the largest city and administrative centre of Astrakhan Oblast in Southern Russia. The city lies on two banks of the Volga, in the upper part of the Volga Delta, on eleven islands of the ...
), while "New Sarai" was founded later in the 13th century by Berke and made capital in the early 14th century by Öz Beg, and was located at Tsarevskoe gorodishche (previously also called Tsarevy Pady, , just northwest of modern
Tsarev and farther west of
Kolobovka
Kolobovka (russian: Колобовка) is a types of inhabited localities in Russia, rural locality (a Village#Russia, selo) and the administrative center of Kolobovskoye Rural Settlement, Leninsky District, Volgograd Oblast, Leninsky District, V ...
, about 55 km east-southeast of
Volzhsky). The Selitrennoe gorodishche archaeological site was described as "Gorodishche Selitrennoe ... remains of the Golden Horde capital Sarai-Batu" on the official sign in at the site, while the corresponding sign at the Tsarevskoe gorodishche archaeological site read "Ruins of Sarai-Berke (New Sarai)".
This apparent certainty was eventually eroded by subsequent scholarship. First, it was noted that "New Sarai" could not be associated with Berke on historical, archaeological, and numismatic grounds, leading to a modification of the reconstruction: "New Sarai" was built by Öz Beg, and both "Sarai Batu" and "Sarai Berke" referred to "Old Sarai". Second, the analysis of the archaeological remains and distribution of found coins led to the realization that, while Selitrennoe gorodishche matched Sarai (or more specifically "New Sarai"), Tsarevskoe gorodishche did not, and was likely to represent the hitherto unlocated city of Gülistan, which was developed by Jani Beg and rivaled Sarai as a khan's residence and mint in the 1350s and 1360s but then declined. This conclusion quickly gained support among the experts, and the present general consensus is that Selitrennoe gorodishche () is "New Sarai", while Tsarevskoe gorodishche () is Gülistan.
There is currently no consensus on the location and identification of "Old Sarai". Some scholars suppose that it was a less impressive settlement whose ruins are yet unnoticed or obscured under those of "New Sarai" at Selitrennoe gorodishche, or were destroyed by changing water courses and levels. Others have sought a suitable archaeological site downstream of Selitrennoe gorodishche to identify with "Old Sarai". Here there are extensive remains of Golden Horde settlements, especially at Aksarayskoe gorodishche (at modern Lapas, medieval Dawlat-Khan), and at Akhtubinskoe gorodishche (at modern
Komsomol'skiy, medieval Ak-Saray). Apart from a tentative suggestion for
Vol'noe 15 km downstream from Selitrennoe, Akhtubinskoe gorodishche at Komsomol'skiy has also been suggested, and a case has been made for Krasnoyarskoe gorodishche in
Krasny Yar, where the necropolis on the neighboring Mayachny hill has yielded some coins from the 13th century.
The question remains open. The account of William of Rubruck (1254) ensures a location for the Sarai of Batu at or slightly above the apex of the Volga Delta, on the left edge of the Volga-Akhtuba river sistem. This is something possibly compatible with Selitrennoe gorodishche, or perhaps rather with a site farther downstream, between it and the apex of the Delta. This is also consistent with the account of
Abū al-Fidāʾ
Ismāʿīl b. ʿAlī b. Maḥmūd b. Muḥammad b. ʿUmar b. Shāhanshāh b. Ayyūb b. Shādī b. Marwān ( ar, إسماعيل بن علي بن محمود بن محمد بن عمر بن شاهنشاه بن أيوب بن شادي بن مروان ...
(1321), which places Sarai on the Volga only 2 days above the Caspian coast, and with that of Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, who reached Sarai 3 days after (Old) Astrakhan.
Pegolotti (writing in 1335–1343) gives a single
day's journey
A day's journey in pre-modern literature, including the Bible, ancient geographers and ethnographers such as Herodotus, is a measurement of distance.
In the Bible, it is not as precisely defined as other Biblical measurements of distance; the dis ...
between Sarai and Astrakhan, while the ''
Nikon Chronicle
The ''Nikon Chronicle'' (russian: Никоновская летопись) is a compilation of Russian chronicles undertaken at the court of Ivan the Terrible in the mid-16th century. The compilation was named after Patriarch of Moscow and all Ru ...
'' cites 2 days for the same journey. Only the account of William of Rubruck refers without any doubt to "Old Sarai", since it dates to the reign of Batu. If "Old Sarai" and "New Sarai" coexisted for some time at some distance from each other, "Old Sarai" ought to be sought downstream of "New Sarai". This might be confirmed by a 15th-century map from the Franciscan monastery of Lesina (
Hvar
Hvar (; Chakavian: ''Hvor'' or ''For'', el, Φάρος, Pharos, la, Pharia, it, Lesina) is a Croatian island in the Adriatic Sea, located off the Dalmatian coast, lying between the islands of Brač, Vis and Korčula. Approximately long,
wi ...
), which places Saray (apparently "New Sarai" at Selitrennoe gorodishche) on the Volga, above Dolatcana (Dawlat-Khan, at Aksarayskoe gorodishche/Lapas), above Eschisari (Eski Saray, i.e., "Old Sarai"). One interpretation of the evidence would place Batu's original camp on the Akhtuba across from modern
Seitovka (and just south from modern Aksaraysky), "Old Sarai" a little upstram at medieval Ak-Saray (Akhtubinskoe gorodishche, Komsomol'skiy), the major royal necropolis a little upstream at medieval Dawlat-Khan (Aksarayskoe gorodishche, Lapas), and "New Sarai" a little upstream at Selitrennoe gorodishche.
Little Sarai
Sarai Juk (''Sarāyjūq'' or ''Sarāyčūq'' in Perso-Arabic texts, ''Sarayçık'' in Turkic ones, "Little Sarai") was a city on the lower
Ural River
The Ural (russian: Урал, ), known before 1775 as Yaik (russian: Яик, ba, Яйыҡ, translit=Yayıq, ; kk, Жайық, translit=Jaiyq, ), is a river flowing through Russia and Kazakhstan in the continental border between Europe and Asia ...
. It is sometimes conflated with the other Sarais in historical and modern accounts, and was once considered a possible location for the capital of the Golden Horde. This town did serve as the main city of the
Nogai Horde
The Nogai Horde was a confederation founded by the Nogais that occupied the Pontic–Caspian steppe from about 1500 until they were pushed west by the Kalmyks and south by the Russians in the 17th century. The Mongol tribe called the Manghuds cons ...
, one of the successors of the Golden Horde. Although sacked by the
Ural Cossacks
The Ural Cossack Host was a cossack host formed from the Ural Cossacks – those Eurasian cossacks settled by the Ural River. Their alternative name, Yaik Cossacks, comes from the old name of the river.
They were also known by the names:
*Rus ...
in 1580, it was later used as the headquarters by some
Kazakh khans.
Sarai-Batu Museum and Tourist Center
Located just under 5 km northwest of the border of the archaeological site of Selitrennoe gorodishche (the medieval "New Sarai") is the "Sarai-Batu" open air museum and tourist center. This was originally built in 2011 as a set for the filming of the 2012 film ''
The Horde'', and it was also used as the setting for a few scenes in the 2016 series ''
Sophia''. The sets, built of wood covered with cement and then clay, were recovered with clay again in 2013 in preparation for the continued use of the structures. The sets represent several spaces within the Golden Horde city, combining both attention to reproducing genuine details uncovered by archaeologists and an element of fantasy inspired by medieval and pre-modern settlements in the
Eurasian Steppes
The Eurasian Steppe, also simply called the Great Steppe or the steppes, is the vast steppe ecoregion of Eurasia in the temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands biome. It stretches through Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova and Transnistria ...
. They were converted into an open air museum and tourist center at the initiative of the governor of
Astrakhan Oblast
Astrakhan Oblast (russian: Астраха́нская о́бласть, ''Astrakhanskaya oblast'', , ''Astrakhan oblysy'') is a federal subjects of Russia, federal subject of Russia (an oblast) located in southern Russia. Its administrative center ...
,
Alexander Zhilkin
Alexander Alexandrovich Zhilkin (russian: Алекса́ндр Алекса́ндрович Жи́лкин; born August 26, 1959) is a Russian politician who served as the Governor of Astrakhan Oblast between 2004 and 2018. He became acting g ...
, and opened to visitors in 2018. The center serves as an educational immersive environment, as a location for historical festivals and reenactor events, camel rides, souvenir shopping, and visits to the archaeological site of Selitrennoe gorodishche.
["Sarai-Batu" official webpage: http://saray-batu.ru/]
See also
*
Bakhchisaray
Bakhchysarai ( crh, Bağçasaray, italic=yes; russian: Бахчисара́й; ua, Бахчисара́й; tr, Bahçesaray) is a town in Crimea, a territory recognized by a majority of countries as part of Ukraine and annexed by Russia as the Re ...
*
Elista
Elista (russian: Элиста́, (common during the Soviet era) or (most common pronunciation used after 1992 and in Kalmykia itself);"Большой энциклопедический словарь", под ред. А. М. Прохорова. ...
*
Volgograd
Volgograd ( rus, Волгогра́д, a=ru-Volgograd.ogg, p=vəɫɡɐˈɡrat), geographical renaming, formerly Tsaritsyn (russian: Цари́цын, Tsarítsyn, label=none; ) (1589–1925), and Stalingrad (russian: Сталингра́д, Stal ...
References
Citations
General and cited references
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* Atwood, C. P. "Saray and New Saray", in: ''Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire''. New York: Facts on File, 2004: 488–489.
* Boyle, J. A. (trans.), ''The History of the World-Conqueror by ʿAla-ad-Din ʿAta-Malik Juvaini'', vol. 1, Cambridge, MA, 1958.
* Bukharaev, R., ''Islam in Russia: The Four Seasons'', London: Routledge, 2013.
* Egorov, V. L., ''Istoričeskaja geografija Zolotoj Ordy v XIII-XIV vv.'', Moscow, 1985.
* Evans, A. (ed.), ''Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, La Pratica della Mercatura'', Cambridge, MA, 1936.
* Evstratov, I. V., "O zolotoordynskih gorodah, nahodivšihsja na mestah Selitrennogo i Carevskogo gorodišč," in: ''Èpoha bronzy i rannij železnyj vek v istorii drevnih plemen južnorusskih stepej'' 2, Saratov, 1997: 88–118.
* Fren (Frähn), H. M., ''Montey hanov ulusa Džučieva ili Zolotoj Ordy, St Petersburg, 1832.
* Gibb, H. A. R. (trans.), ''The Travels of Ibn Baṭṭūṭa A. D. 1325-1354''. Vol. 2. Cambridge, 1962.
* Goldschmidt, E. P., "The Lesina Portolan Chart of the Caspian Sea," ''The Geographical Journal'' 103 (1944) 272-278.
* Gončarov, E. J., "Staryj i Novyj Saraj - stolica Zolotoj Ordy (novyj vzgljadna izvestnye istočniki", ''Stepi Evropy v èpoh u srednevekov'ja'' 1 (2000) 345–350.
* Grigor'ev, V. V., "O mestopoloženie Saraja, stolocy Zolotoj-Ordy", in: ''Rossija i Azija'', St. Petersburg, 1876.
* Hammer-Purgstall, J. von, ''Geschichte der Goldenen horde in Kiptschak'', Pest, 1840.
* Howorth, H. H., ''History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th century'', Part II.1, London, 1880.
*
* Krivošeev, A. A., ''Donskoj ulus Zolotoj Ordy'', Rostov-na-Donu, 2007.
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page 30)
* MacKenzie, D., M. W. Curran. (2002). ''A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond.'' Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
* Mackintosh-Smith, T. (ed.), ''The Travels of Ibn Battutah'', London: Picador, 2002. ()
*
* May, T., ''The Mongol Empire'', Edinburgh, 2018.
* Pačkalov, A. V., "Numismatic evidence for the location of Saray, the capital of the Golden Horde," in: N. Holmes (ed.), ''Proceedings of the XIV International Numismatic Congress, Glasgow, 2011''. Vol. 2. Glasgow, 2011.
* Pačkalov, A. V., "O mestopoloženija Saraja (pervoj stolicy Zolotoj Ordy)," ''Arheologija ta ètnologija shidnoi Uvropi'', Odesa, 2002: 175–178.
* Petrov, P. N., K. V. Kravcov, S. V. Gumajunov, "Monety Saraja pervoj poloviny 660-h gg.h./ 1260-h gg.," ''Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie'' 6 (2018) 145-158.
* Pigarëv, E. M., "Administrativno-territorial'naja struktura oblasti Saraj (del'ta r. Volga)," in: S. G. Bočarov and A. G. Sitdikov (eds.), ''Genuèzskaja Gazarija i Zolotaja Orda'', 2, Kazan', 2019: 483-508.
* Pigarëv, E. M., "Del'ta Volgi v XIII-XIV vv.," ''Trudy V (XXI) Vserossijskogo arheologičeskogo s"ezda v Barnaule'' 3, Barnaul, 2017: 287–291.
* Pigarëv, E. M., "Russkie vešči iz zolotoordynskoj stolicy - goroda Saraj al-Džedid (k voprosu o rasselenii russkih v zolotoordynskih nižnevolžskih gorodah," ''Narody i religii Evrazii'' 26 (2021) 49–66.
* Pohlëbkin, V. V., ''Tatary i Rus': 360 let otnošenij 1238-1598'', Moscow, 2000.
* Rockhill, W. W. (trans.), ''The journey of William of Rubruck to the eastern parts of the world, 1253-1255, as narrated by himself'', London, 1900.
* Rogers, J. M., "Recent Archaeological Work on the Golden Horde," ''Bulletin of the Asia Institute'' 14 (2000) 135–146.
* Rudakov, V. G., "K voprosu o dvuh stolicah v Zolotoj Orde i mestopoloženii goroda Gjulistana," in: I. V. Belocerkovskaja (ed.), ''Naučnoe nasledie A. P. Smirnova i sovremennye problemy arheologii Volgo-Kam'ja'', Moscow, 2000: 305–323.
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* Sagdeeva, R. Z., ''Serebrjannye monety hanov Zolotoj Ordy'', Moscow, 2005.
* Sanders, J. J. (trans.), ''Ahmed Ibn Arabshah, Tamerlane or Timur the Great Amir'', London, 1936.
* Shamiloglu, U., "The rise of urban centers in the Golden Horde and the city of Ükek," ''Golden Horde Review'' 6 (2018) 18-40.
* Siksimov, D. A., "Problema lokalizacii Saraja XIII veka v sovremennoj istoriografii," ''Vestnik Volgu'' 4:12 (2007) 117–126.
* Tizengauzen, V. G. (trans.), ''Sbornik materialov, otnosjaščihsja k istorii Zolotoj Ordy. Izvlečenija iz arabskih sočinenii'', republished as ''Istorija Kazahstana v arabskih istočnikah''. 1. Almaty, 2005.
* Vásáry, I., "Nog̲h̲ay", in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', Second Edition, P. Bearman et al. (eds.). Consulted online on 8 January 2022
* Vasil'evič, K.V. et al., ''Atlas Istorii SSSR 1'', Moscow, 1948.
* Zajcev, I. V. ''Astrahanskoe hanstvo'', Moscow, 2006.
{{Mongol Empire
Geography of Astrakhan Oblast
Destroyed cities
Defunct towns in Russia
1240s establishments in Asia
Populated places established in the 1240s
Populated places on the Volga
Golden Horde
Former populated places in Russia