Neuroepithelial cells, or neuroectodermal cells, form the wall of the closed

neural tube In the developing chordate (including vertebrates), the neural tube is the embryonic precursor to the central nervous system, which is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The neural groove gradually deepens as the neural fold become elevated, a ...

in early

embryonic development An embryo is an initial stage of development of a multicellular organism. In organisms that reproduce sexually, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male sperm ...

. The neuroepithelial cells span the thickness of the tube's wall, connecting with the

pial Pia mater ( or ),Entry "pia mater"
in
lumenal surface. They are joined at the lumen of the tube by

junctional complexes Cell junctions (or intercellular bridges) are a class of cellular structures consisting of multiprotein complexes that provide contact or adhesion between neighboring cells or between a cell and the extracellular matrix in animals. They also mai ...

, where they form a pseudostratified layer of

epithelium Epithelium or epithelial tissue is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. It is a thin, continuous, protective layer of compactly packed cells with a little intercellul ...

called neuroepithelium. Neuroepithelial cells are the

stem cell In multicellular organisms, stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell. They are the earliest type o ...

s of the

central nervous system The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all par ...

, known as

neural stem cell Neural stem cells (NSCs) are self-renewing, multipotent cells that firstly generate the radial glial progenitor cells that generate the neurons and glia of the nervous system of all animals during embryonic development. Some neural progenitor ste ...

s, and generate the intermediate

progenitor cell A progenitor cell is a Cell (biology), biological cell that can Cellular differentiation, differentiate into a specific cell type. Stem cells and progenitor cells have this ability in common. However, stem cells are less specified than progenitor ...

s known as

radial glial cell Radial glial cells, or radial glial progenitor cells (RGPs), are bipolar-shaped progenitor cells that are responsible for producing all of the neurons in the cerebral cortex. RGPs also produce certain lineages of glia, including astrocytes and ol ...

s, that differentiate into

neuron A neuron, neurone, or nerve cell is an electrically excitable cell that communicates with other cells via specialized connections called synapses. The neuron is the main component of nervous tissue in all animals except sponges and placozoa. N ...

s and

glia Glia, also called glial cells (gliocytes) or neuroglia, are non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system that do not produce electrical impulses. They maintain homeostasis, form mye ...

in the process of

neurogenesis Neurogenesis is the process by which nervous system cells, the neurons, are produced by neural stem cells (NSCs). It occurs in all species of animals except the porifera (sponges) and placozoans. Types of NSCs include neuroepithelial cells (NECs) ...

Embryonic neural development

Brain development

During the third week of embryonic growth the brain begins to develop in the early fetus in a process called

morphogenesis Morphogenesis (from the Greek ''morphê'' shape and ''genesis'' creation, literally "the generation of form") is the biological process that causes a cell, tissue or organism to develop its shape. It is one of three fundamental aspects of devel ...

. Neuroepithelial cells of the

ectoderm The ectoderm is one of the three primary germ layers formed in early embryonic development. It is the outermost layer, and is superficial to the mesoderm (the middle layer) and endoderm (the innermost layer). It emerges and originates from t ...

begin multiplying rapidly and fold in forming the

neural plate The neural plate is a key developmental structure that serves as the basis for the nervous system. Cranial to the primitive node of the embryonic primitive streak, ectodermal tissue thickens and flattens to become the neural plate. The region ante ...

, which invaginates during the fourth week of embryonic growth and forms the

. The formation of the neural tube polarizes the neuroepithelial cells by orienting the apical side of the cell to face inward, which later becomes the ventricular zone, and the basal side is oriented outward, which contacts the

pial Pia mater ( or ),Entry "pia mater"
in
brain A brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs for senses such as vision. It is the most complex organ in a v ...

. As part of this polarity, neuroepithelial cells express prominin-1 in the apical plasma membrane as well as

tight junctions Tight junctions, also known as occluding junctions or ''zonulae occludentes'' (singular, ''zonula occludens''), are multiprotein junctional complexes whose canonical function is to prevent leakage of solutes and water and seals between the epith ...

to maintain the cell polarity.

Integrin alpha 6 Integrin alpha-6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''ITGA6'' gene. Function The ITGA6 protein product is the integrin alpha chain alpha 6. Integrins are integral cell-surface proteins composed of an alpha chain and a beta chain. A ...

anchors the neuroepithelial cells to the

basal lamina The basal lamina is a layer of extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells, on which the epithelium sits. It is often incorrectly referred to as the basement membrane, though it does constitute a portion of the basement membrane. The ba ...

. The

begins as a single layer of pseudostratified epithelial cells, but rapid proliferation of neuroepithelial cells creates additional layers and eventually three distinct regions of growth. As these additional layers form the apical-basal polarity must be downregulated. Further proliferation of the cells in these regions gives rise to three distinct areas of the brain: the

forebrain In the anatomy of the brain of vertebrates, the forebrain or prosencephalon is the Anatomical terms of location#Directional terms, rostral (forward-most) portion of the brain. The forebrain (prosencephalon), the midbrain (mesencephalon), and hin ...

midbrain The midbrain or mesencephalon is the forward-most portion of the brainstem and is associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep and wakefulness, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation. The name comes from the Greek ''mesos'', " ...

, and

hindbrain The hindbrain or rhombencephalon or lower brain is a developmental categorization of portions of the central nervous system in vertebrates. It includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. Together they support vital bodily processes. Metencephalo ...

. The neural tube also gives rise to the

spinal cord The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue, which extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column (backbone). The backbone encloses the central canal of the spi ...

Neuroepithelial cell proliferation

Neuroepithelial cells are a class of stem cell and have the ability to self-renew. During the formation of the neural tube, neuroepithelial cells undergo symmetric proliferative divisions that give rise to two new neuroepithelial cells. At a later stage of brain development, neuroepithelial cells begin to self renew and give rise to non-stem cell progenitors, such as

s simultaneously by undergoing asymmetric division. Expression of

Tis21 TIS, Tis or Tis may refer to: Organisations * Taporoporo'anga Ipukarea Society, an environmental NGO based in the Cook Islands * TransInvestService (TIS), is a large Ukrainian private terminal operator and stevedore operating in the Port of Yuzhny ...

, an antiproliferative gene, causes the neuroepithelial cell to make the switch from proliferative division to neuronic division. Many of the neuroepithelial cells also divide into radial glial cells, a similar, but more fate restricted cell. Being a more fate restricted cell the radial glial cell will either generate postmitotic neurons, intermediate progenitor cells, or astrocytes in

gliogenesis Gliogenesis is the generation of non-neuronal glia populations derived from multipotent neural stem cells. Overview Gliogenesis results in the formation of non-neuronal glia populations from neuronal cells. In this capacity, glial cells provide m ...

. During neuroepithelial cell division, interkinetic nuclear migration allows the cells to divide unrestricted while maintaining a dense packing. During G1 the

cell nucleus The cell nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin or , meaning ''kernel'' or ''seed'') is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells usually have a single nucleus, but a few cell types, such as mammalian red blood cells, h ...

migrates to the basal side of the cell and remains there for

S phase S phase (Synthesis Phase) is the phase of the cell cycle in which DNA is replicated, occurring between G1 phase and G2 phase. Since accurate duplication of the genome is critical to successful cell division, the processes that occur during ...

and migrates to the apical side for

G2 phase G2 phase, Gap 2 phase, or Growth 2 phase, is the third subphase of interphase in the cell cycle directly preceding mitosis. It follows the successful completion of S phase, during which the cell’s DNA is replicated. G2 phase ends with the o ...

. This migration requires the help of

microtubules Microtubules are polymers of tubulin that form part of the cytoskeleton and provide structure and shape to eukaryotic cells. Microtubules can be as long as 50 micrometres, as wide as 23 to 27 nm and have an inner diameter between 11 an ...

and

actin filaments Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are protein filaments in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells that form part of the cytoskeleton. They are primarily composed of polymers of actin, but are modified by and interact with numerous other pr ...

Radial glial cell transition

Neuroepithelial cells give rise to radial glial progenitor cells in early embryonic development. To make this change, neuroepithelial cells begin to downregulate their epithelial features, by stopping the expression of

occludin Occludin is an enzyme ( EC 1.6) that oxidizes NADH. It was first identified in epithelial cells as a 65 kDa integral plasma-membrane protein localized at the tight junctions. Together with Claudins, and zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), occludin has bee ...

, a tight junction protein. Loss of occludin causes a loss of the previous tight junction seals which is required for the generation of neuroblasts. Another

tight junction Tight junctions, also known as occluding junctions or ''zonulae occludentes'' (singular, ''zonula occludens''), are multiprotein junctional complexes whose canonical function is to prevent leakage of solutes and water and seals between the epith ...

protein,

PARD3 Partitioning defective 3 homolog is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''PARD3'' gene. Function PARD proteins, which were first identified in C. elegans, are essential for asymmetric cell division and polarized growth, whereas CDC42 (M ...

, remains at the apical side of the cell co-localizing with

N-cadherin Cadherin-2 also known as Neural cadherin (N-cadherin), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''CDH2'' gene. CDH2 has also been designated as CD325 (cluster of differentiation 325). Cadherin-2 is a transmembrane protein expressed in multipl ...

and keeps the apical face of the neuroepithelial cell intact. In the absence of occludin some polarity is still lost and the neuroepithelial cell gives rise to the radial glial cell.

Adult neurogenesis

Genesis of neuroepithelial cells in the adult CNS

In the adult CNS, neuroepithelial cells arise in several different areas of the brain: the

subventricular zone The subventricular zone (SVZ) is a region situated on the outside wall of each lateral ventricle of the vertebrate brain. It is present in both the embryonic and adult brain. In embryonic life, the SVZ refers to a secondary proliferative zone ...

(SVZ), the

olfactory bulb The olfactory bulb (Latin: ''bulbus olfactorius'') is a grey matter, neural structure of the vertebrate forebrain involved in olfaction, the sense of odor, smell. It sends olfactory information to be further processed in the amygdala, the orbitof ...

and the

dentate gyrus The dentate gyrus (DG) is part of the hippocampal formation in the temporal lobe of the brain, which also includes the hippocampus and the subiculum. The dentate gyrus is part of the hippocampal trisynaptic circuit and is thought to contribute ...

of the

hippocampus The hippocampus (via Latin from Greek , 'seahorse') is a major component of the brain of humans and other vertebrates. Humans and other mammals have two hippocampi, one in each side of the brain. The hippocampus is part of the limbic system, a ...

. These cells do not appear in any of the

peripheral nervous system The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is one of two components that make up the nervous system of bilateral animals, with the other part being the central nervous system (CNS). The PNS consists of nerves and ganglia, which lie outside the brain ...

. Often categorized as neural stem cells, neuroepithelial cells give rise to only a few varieties of neural cells, making them

multipotent Pluripotency: These are the cells that can generate into any of the three Germ layers which imply Endodermal, Mesodermal, and Ectodermal cells except tissues like the placenta. According to Latin terms, Pluripotentia means the ability for many thin ...

- a definite distinction from the

pluripotent Pluripotency: These are the cells that can generate into any of the three Germ layers which imply Endodermal, Mesodermal, and Ectodermal cells except tissues like the placenta. According to Latin terms, Pluripotentia means the ability for many thin ...

stem cells found in embryonic development. Neuroepithelial cells undergo mitosis generating more neuroepithelial cells, radial glial cells or

progenitor cells In genealogy, the progenitor (rarer: primogenitor; german: Stammvater or ''Ahnherr'') is the – sometimes legendary – founder of a family, line of descent, clan or tribe, noble house, or ethnic group.. Ebenda''Ahnherr:''"Stammvater eines G ...

, the latter two differentiating into either neurons or glial cells. The neuroepithelial cells undergo two different forms of mitosis: asymmetric differentiating division and symmetric prolific division. The

asymmetric cell division An asymmetric cell division produces two daughter cells with different cellular fates. This is in contrast to symmetric cell divisions which give rise to daughter cells of equivalent fates. Notably, stem cells divide asymmetrically to give rise t ...

results in two different varieties of daughter cells (i.e. a neuroepithelial cell divides into a radial glial cell and another neuroepithelial cell), while the symmetric version yields identical daughter cells. This effect is caused by the orientation of the

mitotic spindle In cell biology, the spindle apparatus refers to the cytoskeletal structure of eukaryotic cells that forms during cell division to separate sister chromatids between daughter cells. It is referred to as the mitotic spindle during mitosis, a pr ...

, which is located in either the posterior or anterior area of the mitotic cell, rather than the center where it is found during symmetric division. The progenitor cells and radial glial cells respond to extracellular trophic factors - like

ciliary neurotrophic factor Ciliary neurotrophic factor is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''CNTF'' gene. The protein encoded by this gene is a polypeptide hormone and neurotrophic factor whose actions have mainly been studied in the nervous system where it prom ...

(CNTF),

cytokines Cytokines are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~5–25 kDa) important in cell signaling. Cytokines are peptides and cannot cross the lipid bilayer of cells to enter the cytoplasm. Cytokines have been shown to be involved in autocrin ...

neuregulin 1 Neuregulin 1, or NRG1, is a gene of the epidermal growth factor family that in humans is encoded by the ''NRG1'' gene. NRG1 is one of four proteins in the neuregulin family that act on the EGFR family of receptors. Neuregulin 1 is produced in n ...

(NRG1) - that can determine whether the cells will differentiate into either neurons or glia. On a whole, neurogenesis is regulated both by many varied regulatory pathways in the CNS as well as several other factors, from genes to external stimuli such as the individual behavior of a person. The large interconnected web of regulatory responses acts to fine-tune the responses provided by newly formed neurons.

Neurogenesis in neural repair

Neurogenesis in the adult brain is often associated with diseases that deteriorate the CNS, like

Huntington's disease Huntington's disease (HD), also known as Huntington's chorea, is a neurodegenerative disease that is mostly inherited. The earliest symptoms are often subtle problems with mood or mental abilities. A general lack of coordination and an unst ...

Alzheimer's disease Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegeneration, neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and progressively worsens. It is the cause of 60–70% of cases of dementia. The most common early symptom is difficulty in short-term me ...

, and

Parkinson's disease Parkinson's disease (PD), or simply Parkinson's, is a long-term degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that mainly affects the motor system. The symptoms usually emerge slowly, and as the disease worsens, non-motor symptoms becom ...

. While adult neurogenesis is up-regulated in the hippocampus in patients with these diseases, whether its effects are regenerative or inconclusive remains to be seen. Individuals with these diseases also often express diminished olfactory abilities as well as decreased cognitive activity in the hippocampus, areas specific to neurogenesis. The genes associated with these diseases like

α-synuclein Alpha-synuclein is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the ''SNCA'' gene. Alpha-synuclein is a neuronal protein that regulates synaptic vesicle trafficking and subsequent neurotransmitter release. It is abundant in the brain, while smaller a ...

presenilin 1 Presenilin-1 (PS-1) is a presenilin protein that in humans is encoded by the ''PSEN1'' gene. Presenilin-1 is one of the four core proteins in the gamma secretase complex, which is considered to play an important role in generation of amyloid beta ...

MAPT The tau proteins (abbreviated from tubulin associated unit) are a group of six highly soluble protein isoforms produced by alternative splicing from the gene ''MAPT'' (microtubule-associated protein tau). They have roles primarily in maintaining ...

(microtubule associated protein tau) and

huntingtin Huntingtin (Htt) is the protein coded for in humans by the ''HTT'' gene, also known as the ''IT15'' ("interesting transcript 15") gene. Mutated ''HTT'' is the cause of Huntington's disease (HD), and has been investigated for this role and also for ...

are also often associated with plasticity in the brain and its modification.

Neuroplasticity Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity, or brain plasticity, is the ability of Neural circuit, neural networks in the brain to change through growth and reorganization. It is when the brain is rewired to function in some way that diffe ...

is associated with neurogenesis in a complementary fashion. The new neurons generated by the neuroepithelial cells, progenitors and radial glial cells will not survive unless they are able to integrate into the system by making connections with new neighbors. This also leads to many controversial concepts, like neurogenic therapy involving the transplant of local progenitor cells to a damaged area.

Associated diseases

Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumor (DNT)

dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumor Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumour (DNT, DNET) is a type of brain tumor. Most commonly found in the temporal lobe, DNTs have been classified as benign tumours. These are glioneuronal tumours comprising both glial and neuron cells and often ha ...

is a rare,

benign tumor A benign tumor is a mass of cells (tumor) that does not invade neighboring tissue or metastasize (spread throughout the body). Compared to malignant (cancerous) tumors, benign tumors generally have a slower growth rate. Benign tumors have re ...

that affects children and teenagers under the age of twenty. The tumor occurs in the tissue covering the brain and spinal cord. The symptoms of the tumor are dependent on its location, but most children experience

seizure An epileptic seizure, informally known as a seizure, is a period of symptoms due to abnormally excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain. Outward effects vary from uncontrolled shaking movements involving much of the body with los ...

s that cannot be controlled by medication. DNT is usually treated through

invasive surgery Minimally invasive procedures (also known as minimally invasive surgeries) encompass surgical techniques that limit the size of incisions needed, thereby reducing wound healing time, associated pain, and risk of infection. Surgery by definition ...

and the patients are usually capable of recovering fully, with little to no long-term effects.

Neuroepithelial cysts

Neuroepithelial cysts, also known as

colloid cyst A colloid cyst is a non-malignant tumor in the brain. It consists of a gelatinous material contained within a membrane of epithelial tissue. It is almost always found just posterior to the foramen of Monro in the anterior aspect of the third ve ...

s, develop in individuals between the ages of 20 and 50 and is relatively rare in individuals under the age of twenty. The cysts are benign tumors that usually appear in the anterior

third ventricle The third ventricle is one of the four connected ventricles of the ventricular system within the mammalian brain. It is a slit-like cavity formed in the diencephalon between the two thalami, in the midline between the right and left lateral v ...

. The cysts occur in the epithelium putting their patients at risk for obstructive

hydrocephalus Hydrocephalus is a condition in which an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) occurs within the brain. This typically causes increased intracranial pressure, pressure inside the skull. Older people may have headaches, double vision, poor ...

, increased

intracranial pressure Intracranial pressure (ICP) is the pressure exerted by fluids such as cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) inside the skull and on the brain tissue. ICP is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and at rest, is normally 7–15 Millimeter of mercury, mmHg ...

, and rarely intracystic hemorrhage. This results from the cysts enlarging by causing the epithelium to secrete additional mucinous fluid. The cysts are usually found incidentally or if patients become symptomatic presenting with the symptoms of hydrocephalus. The larger cysts are operated on while smaller cysts that are not obstructive can be left alone.

Oligodendroglial tumors

Oligodendroglial tumors manifest in glial cells, which are responsible for supporting and protecting nerve cells in the brain. The tumor develops over

oligodendrocytes Oligodendrocytes (), or oligodendroglia, are a type of neuroglia whose main functions are to provide support and insulation to axons in the central nervous system of jawed vertebrates, equivalent to the function performed by Schwann cells in the p ...

and is usually found in the

cerebrum The cerebrum, telencephalon or endbrain is the largest part of the brain containing the cerebral cortex (of the two cerebral hemispheres), as well as several subcortical structures, including the hippocampus, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulb. In ...

around the

frontal Front may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Films * ''The Front'' (1943 film), a 1943 Soviet drama film * ''The Front'', 1976 film Music * The Front (band), an American rock band signed to Columbia Records and active in the 1980s and e ...

or temporal lobes. The tumors can either grow slowly in a well-differentiated manner delaying the onset of symptoms, or they can grow rapidly to form an

anaplastic Anaplasia (from grc, ἀνά ''ana'', "backward" + πλάσις ''plasis'', "formation") is a condition of cells with poor cellular differentiation, losing the morphological characteristics of mature cells and their orientation with respect to ...

oligodendroglioma Oligodendrogliomas are a type of glioma that are believed to originate from the oligodendrocytes of the brain or from a glial precursor cell. They occur primarily in adults (9.4% of all primary brain and central nervous system tumors) but are also ...

. The symptoms for this type of tumor include headaches and visual problems. Additionally, blockage of ventricles could cause buildup of

cerebral spinal fluid Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless body fluid found within the tissue that surrounds the brain and spinal cord of all vertebrates. CSF is produced by specialised ependymal cells in the choroid plexus of the ventricles of the bra ...

resulting in swelling around the tumor. The location of the tumor may also affect the symptoms since frontal lobe tumors can cause gradual mood or personality changes while temporal lobe tumors result in coordination and speech problems.

Ongoing research

Neural chimeras

Researchers have been able to create neural chimeras by combining neurons that developed from

embryonic stem cells Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are pluripotent stem cells derived from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst, an early-stage pre- implantation embryo. Human embryos reach the blastocyst stage 4–5 days post fertilization, at which time they co ...

with glial cells that were also derived from

. These neural chimeras give researchers a comprehensive way of studying the molecular mechanisms behind cell repair and regeneration via neuroepithelial precursor cells and will hopefully shed light on possible nervous system repair in a clinical setting. In an attempt to identify the key features that differentiate neuroepithelial cells from their

s, researchers identified an

intermediate filament Intermediate filaments (IFs) are cytoskeletal structural components found in the cells of vertebrates, and many invertebrates. Homologues of the IF protein have been noted in an invertebrate, the cephalochordate ''Branchiostoma''. Intermedia ...

that was expressed by 98% of the neuroepithelial cells of the neural tube, but none of their progenitor cells. After this discovery it became clear that all three cell types in the nervous system resulted from a homogenous population of stem cells. In order make clinical neural repair possible researchers needed to further characterize regional determination of stem cells during brain development by determining what factors commit a precursor to becoming one or the other. While the exact factors that lead to differentiation are unknown, researchers have taken advantage of human-rat neural chimeras to explore the development of human neurons and glial cells in an animal model. These neural chimeras have permitted researchers to look at neurological diseases in an animal model where traumatic and reactive changes can be controlled. Eventually researchers hope to be able to use the information taken from these neural chimera experiments to repair regions of the brain affected by central nervous system disorders. The problem of delivery, however, has still not been resolved as neural chimeras have been shown to circulate throughout the ventricles and incorporate into all parts of the CNS. By finding environmental cues of differentiation, neuroepithelial precursor transplantation could be used in the treatment of many diseases including

multiple sclerosis Multiple (cerebral) sclerosis (MS), also known as encephalomyelitis disseminata or disseminated sclerosis, is the most common demyelinating disease, in which the insulating covers of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord are damaged. This d ...

, Huntington's disease, and Parkinson's disease. Further exploration of neural chimera cells and chimeric brains will provide evidence for manipulating the correct genes and increasing the efficacy of neural transplant repair.

Depression

Research on depression indicates that one of the major causal factors of depression, stress, also influences neurogenesis. This connection led researches to postulate that depression could be the result of changes in levels of neurogenesis in the adult brain, specifically in the

. Studies indicate that stress affects neurogenesis by increasing Glucocorticoids and decreasing neurotransmitters such as

serotonin Serotonin () or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Its biological function is complex and multifaceted, modulating mood, cognition, reward, learning, memory, and numerous physiological processes such as vomiting and vas ...

. These effects were further verified by inducing stress in lab animals, which resulted in decreased levels of neurogenesis. Additionally, modern therapies that treat depression also promote neurogenesis. Ongoing research is looking to further verify this connection and define the mechanism by which it occurs. This could potentially lead to a better understanding of the development of depression as well as future methods of treatment.

References

External links

* {{Development of nervous system Developmental neuroscience Stem cells