Concept
While crime is partially a social and environmental problem, the main idea behind neurocriminology (also known as neurolaw) is that the condition of an individual's brain often needs to be included in the analysis for a complete understanding. This can include conditions such as brain tumors, psychoses, sociopathy, sleepwalking, and many more. Deviant brain theories have always been part of biocriminology, which explains crime with biological reasons. Neurocriminology has become mainstream during the past two decades, since contemporary biocriminologists focus almost exclusively on brain due to significant advances in neuroscience. Even though neurocriminology is still at odds with traditional sociological theories of crime, it is becoming more popular in the scientific community.Origins
The origins of neurocriminology go back to one of the founders of modern criminology, 19th-century ItalianMajor studies
Many recent studies have revealed that sometimes structural and functional abnormalities are so striking that anyone can see them. Some violent offenders, however, have subtle structural or functional abnormalities and even highly experienced neuroradiologists cannot detect these irregularities right away. Yet, the abnormalities can be detected using brain imaging and state-of-the-art analytic tools.Neurophysiological studies
Studies on structural deficiencies suggest that people consistently behaving antisocially have structurally impaired brains. The abnormalities can be either of general character or affect specific regions of the brain that control emotions, aggression or are responsible for ethical decisions: ''Low number of neurons in the prefrontal cortex''. A study in 2000 determined that people with a history of persistent antisocial behavior had an 11 percent reduction in the volume of gray matter in the prefrontal cortex, while white matter volume was normal. Similarly, A 2009 meta-analysis study, which pooled together the findings of 12 anatomical brain-imaging studies conducted on offender populations, found that the prefrontal cortex of the brain is indeed structurally impaired in offenders. ''Underdeveloped amygdalae''. Two studies found that both the left and especially the right amygdalae are impaired in psychopaths. The psychopaths had on average 18 percent reduction in the volume of the right amygdala. ''Cavum septi pellucidi maldevelopment''. A study in 2010 suggested that people withNeurofunctional studies
Similarly to neurophysiological studies neurofunctional showed that brains of criminals and psychopaths not only are structures differently but also operate in a different way. As you can see below, both structural and functional abnormalities tend to affect the same areas of the brain. These are the major abnormalities found: ''Lack of Activation in the Prefrontal Cortex''. A number of studies replicated the observance that violent criminals’ brains showed a significant reduction in prefrontal glucose metabolism. ''Reduced Activity In The Amygdala''. A study found that individuals with high psychopathy scores showed reduced activity in the amygdala during emotional, personal moral decision-making. ''Dysfunctional Posterior Cingulate''. Two studies found that posterior cingulate functions poorly in adult criminal psychopaths and aggressive patients. ''Reduced Cerebral Blood Flow in Angular Gyrus''. A couple of studies found reduced cerebral blood flow in angular gyrus of murderers and impulsive, violent criminals. ''Higher Activation of Subcortical Limbic Regions''. A 1998 study showed higher activation of subcortical limbic regions of two groups of reactive and proactive murderers, especially in the more “emotional” right hemisphere of the brain. ''Functional Disturbances of the Hippocampus and Its Parahippocampal Gyrus''. A number of studies suggest that this region of the brain is not working properly in murders and violent offenders in general.Free will
Unlike the founding father of criminology, Cesare Lombroso, who thought that crime was fundamentally biological in its origin and criminals lacked free will altogether, contemporary neurocriminologists seem to take the middle ground approach. They do not argue that biological factors alone cause behavioral problems, but recognize that behavior results from interaction between biology and environment. Some authors, however, are more determinist in their views. As Stanford neuroscientistLegal use
US legal defense teams increasingly use brain scans as mitigating evidence in trials of violent criminals and sex offenders. See Neurolaw for more. Here are some of the most famous cases:Herbert Weinstein
In 1991, a sixty-five-year-old advertising executive with no prior history of crime or violence after an argument strangled his wife, opened the window and threw her out of their 12th-floor apartment. His defense team had a structural brain scan done using MRI and PET scan. The images showed a big piece missing from the prefrontal cortex of the brain, i.e., a subarachnoid cyst was growing in his left frontal lobe. The defense team used these images to argue that Weinstein had an impaired ability to regulate his emotions and make rational decisions. The team went with an insanity defense, and the prosecution and defense agreed to a plea of manslaughter. As a result, Weinstein was given a seven-year sentence in contrast to the twenty-five-year sentence he would have served if he had been convicted of second-degree murder. He ended up serving until 2006.Antonio Bustamante
Bustamante was a well-behaved teenager who suddenly at the age of 22 became a career criminal. His crimes included theft, breaking and entering, drug offenses, and robbery. In 1990 Bustamante was charged with a homicide. The defense team discovered that the client had suffered a head injury from a crowbar at the age of twenty. Bustamante's behavior changed fundamentally after that, transforming him from a normal individual into an impulsive and emotionally labile criminal. The defense team had his client's brain scanned, which revealed malfunctioning of the prefrontal cortex. At the end the jury believed that Bustamante's brain was not normal and spared him from the death penalty.Donta Page
In 1999, Page robbed, raped and killed a female student in Denver. He later was found guilty of first-degree murder and was a candidate for the death penalty. Professor A. Raine from the University of Pennsylvania was an expert witness for defense and brought Page into a laboratory to assess his brain function. Brain imaging scans revealed a distinct lack of activation in the ventral prefrontal cortex. Professor Raine argued for a deep-rooted biological explanation for Mr. Page's violence, who escaped death penalty partly on the basis of his brain pathology.Crime prevention
Even though currently there are no preventive programs in place utilizing the recent discoveries in neurocriminology, there are a number of offender rehabilitation programs (Cognitive Centre of Canada).Decisions based on brain imaging
Some scientists propose using brain imaging to help decide which soon-to-be-released offenders are at greater risk for reoffending. The brain imaging data would be used along with common factors like age, prior arrests, and marital status. To support this idea, in a 2013 study, Professor Kent Kiehl from the University of New Mexico studying the population of 96 male offenders in the state's prisons found that offenders with low activity in the anterior cingulate cortex where twice as likely to commit an offense in the four years after their release as those who had high activity in this region. Similarly, Dustin Pardini conducted that which shows that men with a smaller amygdala are three times more likely to commit violence three years after their release.Neurochemistry
Trials demonstrated the efficacy of a number of medications, i.e. stimulants antipsychotics, antidepressants and mood stabilizers, in diminishing aggression in adolescents and children. Even a simple omega-3 supplements in the diets of young offenders reduces offending and aggression.Meditation
Meditation can also affect brains, and even change them permanently. In 2003 Professor Richie Davidson from the University of Wisconsin performed a revolutionary study. People were randomly selected into either a mindfulness training group or a control group that was put on a waiting list for training. Davidson showed that even eight weekly sessions of meditation enhanced left frontal EEG functioning. Similar study was later replicated by Professor Holzel.See also
*References
{{Neuroscience Criminology Genetics Interdisciplinary branches of neuroscience Neurology