Dutch New Guinea or Netherlands New Guinea ( nl, Nederlands-Nieuw-Guinea, id, Nugini Belanda) was the
western half of the island of
New Guinea
New Guinea (; Hiri Motu
Hiri Motu, also known as Police Motu, Pidgin Motu, or just Hiri, is a language of Papua New Guinea, which is spoken in surrounding areas of Port Moresby (Capital of Papua New Guinea).
It is a simplified version of ...
that was a part of the
Dutch East Indies
The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies ( nl, Nederlands(ch)-Indië; ), was a Dutch colony consisting of what is now Indonesia. It was formed from the nationalised trading posts of the Dutch East India Company, which ...
until 1949, later an
overseas territory
A territory is an area of land, sea, or space, particularly belonging or connected to a country, person, or animal.
In international politics, a territory is usually either the total area from which a state may extract power resources or an ...
of the
Kingdom of the Netherlands
, national_anthem = )
, image_map = Kingdom of the Netherlands (orthographic projection).svg
, map_width = 250px
, image_map2 = File:KonDerNed-10-10-10.png
, map_caption2 = Map of the four constituent countries shown to scale
, capital = ...
from 1949 to 1962. It contained what are now
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
's five easternmost provinces,
Central Papua
Central Papua, officially the Central Papua Province ( id, Provinsi Papua Tengah) is an Indonesian province located in the central region of Western New Guinea. It was formally established on 11 November 2022 from the former eight western regencie ...
,
Highland Papua
Highland Papua ( id, Papua Pegunungan) is a province of Indonesia, which roughly follows the borders of Papuan customary region of Lano-Pago, shortened to La Pago. It covers an area of and had a population of 1,408,641 according to the official es ...
,
Papua,
South Papua
South Papua, officially the South Papua Province ( id, Provinsi Papua Selatan), is an Indonesian province located in the southern portion of Papua, following the borders of Papuan customary region of Anim Ha. Formally established on 11 November 2 ...
, and
West Papua, which were administered as a single province prior to 2003 under the name ''Irian Jaya'', and now comprise the
Papua region
Southern Region (formerly Papua Region) is one of four regions of Papua New Guinea. The region includes the national capital Port Moresby.
Subdivision
The Region is administratively divided into six provinces:
*Central
*Gulf
* Milne Bay
* Oro (No ...
of the country.
During the
Indonesian Revolution
The Indonesian National Revolution, or the Indonesian War of Independence, was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between the Republic of Indonesia and the Dutch Empire and an internal social revolution during postwar and postcoloni ...
, the Dutch launched a
police action
In military/security studies and international relations, police action is a military action undertaken without a formal declaration of war. Today the term counter-insurgency is more used.
Since World War II, formal declarations of war have bee ...
("
Operation Product
Operation Product was a Dutch military offensive against areas of Java and Sumatra controlled by the Republic of Indonesia during the Indonesian National Revolution.Vickers (2005), p. 99 It took place between 21 July and 4 August 1947. Referr ...
") to capture territory from the Indonesian Republic. However, the harsh methods of the Dutch had drawn international disapproval. With international opinion shifting towards support of the Indonesian Republic, the Dutch managed in 1949 to negotiate for the separation of Dutch New Guinea from the broader Indonesian settlement, with the fate of the disputed territory to be decided by the close of 1950. However, the Dutch in coming years were able to argue successfully at the UN that the indigenous population of Dutch New Guinea represented a separate ethnic group from the people of Indonesia and thus should not be absorbed into the Indonesian state.
In contrast, the Indonesian Republic, as
successor state
Succession of states is a concept in international relations regarding a successor state that has become a sovereign state over a territory (and populace) that was previously under the sovereignty of another state. The theory has its roots in 19th- ...
to the Netherlands East Indies, claimed Dutch New Guinea as part of its natural territorial bounds. The dispute over New Guinea was an important factor in the quick decline in bilateral relations between the Netherlands and Indonesia after Indonesian independence. The dispute escalated into low-level conflict in 1962 following Dutch moves in 1961 to establish a
New Guinea Council
The New Guinea Council ( nl, Nieuw-Guinea Raad) was a unicameral representative body formed in the Dutch colony of Netherlands New Guinea in 1961.
History
Prior to the formation of the New Guinea Council, there existed a Council of Directors, w ...
.
Following the
Vlakke Hoek incident, Indonesia launched a campaign of infiltrations designed to place pressure on the Dutch. Facing diplomatic pressure from the United States, fading domestic support and continual Indonesian threats to invade the territory, the Netherlands decided to relinquish control of the disputed territory in August 1962, agreeing to the Bunker Proposal on condition that a
referendum
A referendum (plural: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a direct vote by the electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. This may result in the adoption of a ...
to determine the final fate of the territory be conducted at a later date. The territory was administered by the UN temporarily before being transferred to Indonesia on 1 May 1963. A plebiscite, the
Act of Free Choice
The Act of Free Choice ( id, Penentuan Pendapat Rakyat, PEPERA, Determination of the People's Opinion) was a controversial plebiscite held between 14 July and 2 August 1969 in which 1,025 people selected by the Indonesian military in Western New ...
, was eventually held in 1969, but the fairness of the election is disputed.
Pre-World War II
Until after
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
the western part of the island of New Guinea was part of the
Great East
The Great East ( nl, Groote Oost) was a governorate (''gouvernement'') of the Dutch East Indies between 1938 and 1946. It comprised all the islands to the east of Borneo (Celebes, the Moluccas, and West New Guinea, with their offshore islands) an ...
(''Groote Oost'') governorate of the Dutch East Indies. The Netherlands claimed sovereignty over New Guinea within the colony through its protection over
Sultanate of Tidore
The Sultanate of Tidore (Indonesian: كسلطانن تيدوري, ''Kesultanan Tidore'', sometimes ''Kerajaan Tidore'') was a sultanate in Southeast Asia, centered on Tidore in the Maluku Islands (presently in North Maluku Province). It was also kn ...
, a sultanate on an island west of
Halmahera
Halmahera, formerly known as Jilolo, Gilolo, or Jailolo, is the largest island in the Maluku Islands. It is part of the North Maluku province of Indonesia, and Sofifi, the capital of the province, is located on the west coast of the island.
Hal ...
in the
Maluku Islands
The Maluku Islands (; Indonesian: ''Kepulauan Maluku'') or the Moluccas () are an archipelago in the east of Indonesia. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone. Geographically they are located eas ...
. In a 1660 treaty the
Dutch East India Company
The United East India Company ( nl, Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, the VOC) was a chartered company established on the 20th March 1602 by the States General of the Netherlands amalgamating existing companies into the first joint-stock ...
(VOC) recognised the Sultanate of Tidore's supremacy over the
Papuan people
The indigenous peoples of West Papua in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, commonly called Papuans, are Melanesians. There is genetic evidence for two major historical lineages in New Guinea and neighboring islands: a first wave from the Malay Arc ...
, the inhabitants of New Guinea. Probably this referred to some Papuan islands (Raja Ampat) near the Maluku Islands as well as coastal areas like
Fakfak
Fakfak () is a town in West Papua and seat of the Fakfak Regency. It had a population of 12,566 at the 2010 Census, which rose to 18,900 at the 2020 Census.Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2021. It is served by Fakfak Airport. It is the only town i ...
, through familial relations with local rulers although Tidore never exercised actual control over the interior and highlands of New Guinea. In 1872 Tidore recognised Dutch sovereignty and granted permission to the Kingdom of the Netherlands to establish administration in its territories whenever the Netherlands Indies authorities would want to do so. This allowed the Netherlands to legitimise a claim to the New Guinea area.
The Dutch established the 141st meridian as the eastern frontier of the territory. In 1898 the Netherlands Indies government decided to establish administrative posts in
Fakfak
Fakfak () is a town in West Papua and seat of the Fakfak Regency. It had a population of 12,566 at the 2010 Census, which rose to 18,900 at the 2020 Census.Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2021. It is served by Fakfak Airport. It is the only town i ...
and
Manokwari
Manokwari is a coastal town and the capital of the Indonesian province of West Papua. It is one of only seven provincial capitals of Indonesia without a city status. It is also the administrative seat of Manokwari Regency. However, under pro ...
, followed by
Merauke
Merauke is a large town and the capital of the South Papua province, Indonesia. It is also the administrative centre of Merauke Regency in South Papua. It is considered the easternmost city in Indonesia. The town was originally called Ermasoe. It ...
in 1902. The main reason for this was the expansion of British and German control in the east. The Dutch wanted to make sure the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
and
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
would not move the border to the west. This resulted in the partition of the island of New Guinea.
In reality the most part of New Guinea remained outside colonial influence. Little was known about the interior; large areas on the map were white and the number of inhabitants of the island was unknown, and numerous explorations were made into the interior from the turn of the 20th century on. The indigenous inhabitants of New Guinea were Papuans, living in tribes. They were hunter-gatherers.
Pre-
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
economic activity was limited. Only coastal and island dwellers traded to some extent, mostly with the Maluku Islands. A development company was founded in 1938 to change this situation, but it was not very active. So, until World War II, New Guinea was a disregarded and unimportant territory within the Netherlands Indies.
Homeland for the Eurasians
The group that was most interested in New Guinea before the war were the
Eurasians or
Indo people
The Indo people ( nl, Indische Nederlanders, or Indos) are Eurasian people living in or connected with Indonesia. In its narrowest sense, the term refers to people in the former Dutch East Indies who held European legal status but were of ...
. Before the war some 150,000 to 200,000 Eurasians were living in the Netherlands Indies. They were of mixed European and Indonesian descent and identified with the Netherlands and the Dutch way of life. In the colonial society of the Netherlands Indies, they held a higher social status than indigenous
Indonesians
Indonesians (Indonesian: ''orang Indonesia'') are citizens or people originally from Indonesia, regardless of their ethnic or religious background. There are more than 1,300 ethnicities in Indonesia, making it a multicultural archipelagic coun ...
("''
inlanders''"). They were mostly employed as office workers. As the educational level of indigenous Indonesians was on the rise, more and more Indonesians got jobs previously held by Eurasians. These had no other means of making a living, because, as Europeans, they were forbidden to buy land on
Java
Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's List ...
. This situation caused mental and economic problems to the Eurasians. In 1923, the first plan to designate New Guinea as a settlement territory for Eurasians was devised. In 1926, a separate ''Vereniging tot Kolonisatie van Nieuw-Guinea'' (Association for the Settlement of New Guinea) was founded. In 1930, it was followed by the ''Stichting Immigratie Kolonisatie Nieuw-Guinea'' (Foundation Immigration and Settlement New Guinea). These organisations regarded New Guinea as an untouched, almost empty land that could serve as a homeland to the sidelined Eurasians. A kind of tropical Holland, where Eurasians could create an existence.
These associations succeeded in sending settlers to New Guinea and lobbied successfully for the establishment of a government agency to subsidise these initiatives (in 1938). However, most settlements ended in failure because of the harsh climate and natural conditions, and because of the fact the settlers, previously office workers, were not skilled in agriculture. The number of settlers remained small. In the Netherlands proper, some organisations existed that promoted a kind of "tropical Holland" in New Guinea, but they were rather marginal. They were linked to the
NSB party and other
fascist
Fascism is a far-right, Authoritarianism, authoritarian, ultranationalism, ultra-nationalist political Political ideology, ideology and Political movement, movement,: "extreme militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral democracy and pol ...
organisations.
Administrative divisions
Origin of the dispute over New Guinea
In 1942, most parts of the Netherlands Indies were occupied by
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
. Behind Japanese lines in New Guinea, Dutch guerrilla fighters resisted under
Mauritz Christiaan Kokkelink. During the occupation the Indonesian nationalist movement went through a rapid development. After Japan's surrender,
Sukarno
Sukarno). (; born Koesno Sosrodihardjo, ; 6 June 1901 – 21 June 1970) was an Indonesian statesman, orator, revolutionary, and nationalist who was the first president of Indonesia, serving from 1945 to 1967.
Sukarno was the leader of ...
issued the
Proclamation of Indonesian Independence
The Proclamation of Indonesian Independence ( id, Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Indonesia, or simply ''Proklamasi'') was read at 10:00 on Friday, 17 August 1945 in Jakarta. The declaration marked the start of the diplomatic and armed resistance of th ...
, which was to encompass the whole of the Netherlands Indies. The Dutch authorities returned after several months under the leadership of Lieutenant-Governor-General
Hubertus van Mook
Hubertus Johannes "Huib" van Mook (30 May 1894 – 10 May 1965) was a Dutch administrator in the East Indies. During the Indonesian National Revolution, he served as the Acting Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1942 to 1948.Kahin ...
. Van Mook decided to reform Indonesia on a federal basis. This was not a completely new idea, but it was contrary to the administrative practice in the Netherlands Indies until then and contrary to the ideas of the nationalists, who wanted a centralist Indonesia.
Linggadjati agreement
The ethnic diversity of Indonesia was initially discussed at two conferences in
Malino Malino may refer to:
*Malino, Indonesia, a town in Indonesia
* Malino, Russia, name of several inhabited localities in Russia
*Malino, Croatia
Malino is a village in municipality of Oriovac in the central part of Brod-Posavina County
Brod-Posav ...
and
Pangkalpinang. During the Pangkalpinang conference, the right of self-determination of the Eurasian, Chinese, and Arab ethnic minorities was discussed. The new ''Grooter Nederland-Actie'' (Extended Netherlands Action) send delegates to this conference, who opined that New Guinea should be declared as separate entities in a similar manner to Surinam. Furthermore, this conference stipulated specific territories could have special relations with the Kingdom of the Netherlands if they wanted to.
Van Mook's plan was to divide Indonesia into several federal states, ''negaras'', with possible autonomous areas, ''
daerahs''. The whole would be called the
United States of Indonesia
The United States of Indonesia ( nl, Verenigde Staten van Indonesië, id, Republik Indonesia Serikat, abbreviated as RIS), was a short-lived federal state to which the Netherlands formally transferred sovereignty of the Dutch East Indies (except ...
and would remain linked to the Netherlands in the
Netherlands-Indonesian Union
The Netherlands-Indonesia Union was a confederal relationship between the Netherlands and Indonesia that existed between 1949 and 1956.
History
On 15 November 1946 the Linggadjati Agreement was signed between the Netherlands and the soon-to-be in ...
. The Indonesian side agreed to this plan during the
Linggadjati conference in November 1946. Van Mook thought a federal structure would safeguard Indonesia's cultural and ethnic diversity. Van Mook and his supporters referred to the
right of self-determination
The right of a people to self-determination is a cardinal principle in modern international law (commonly regarded as a ''jus cogens'' rule), binding, as such, on the United Nations as authoritative interpretation of the Charter's norms. It stat ...
in this respect: the different ethnic communities of Indonesia should have the right to govern themselves.
The unilateral amendment of 'Linggadjati'
To many Dutchmen, the idea of parting with Indonesia was shocking. Many Dutch thought their country had a mission to develop Indonesia. The Indonesian wish for independence to many Dutch came as a complete surprise. Because Indonesian nationalists, which had no electoral or official legitimacy—save ethno-state nationalism, under Sukarno cooperated with the Japanese, they were branded as traitors and
collaborators. Almost every Dutch political party was against Indonesian independence. The Protestant
Anti-Revolutionary Party
The Anti-Revolutionary Party ( nl, Anti-Revolutionaire Partij, ARP) was a Protestant conservative and Christian democratic political party in the Netherlands. The party was founded in 1879 by Abraham Kuyper, a neo-Calvinist theologian and m ...
(ARP) were very supportive of the
Dutch Ethical Policy
The Dutch Ethical Policy ( nl, Ethische Politiek) was the official policy of the colonial government of the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia) during the four decades from 1901 until the Japanese occupation of 1942. In 1901, the Dutch Q ...
in Indonesia. The newly established liberal
People's Party for Freedom and Democracy
The People's Party for Freedom and Democracy ( nl, Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie ; VVD) is a conservative-liberal Andeweg, R. and G. Irwin ''Politics and Governance in the Netherlands'', Basingstoke (Palgrave) p.49 political party in ...
campaigned for a hard-line policy against the nationalists. Even the
Labour Party, which supported Indonesian independence in principle, was hesitant, because of the policies of Sukarno.
Minister of Colonies
Jan Anne Jonkman
Jan Anne Jonkman (Utrecht (city), Utrecht, 13 September 1891 – The Hague, 27 June 1976) was a Dutch politician.
He was a member of the Dutch Labour Party, PvdA. As a minister, he dealt with colonial affairs. He was also president of the Sena ...
defended the Linggadjati Agreement in Parliament in 1946 by stating that the government wished for New Guinea to remain under Dutch sovereignty, arguing it could be a settlement for Eurasians. A motion entered by the
Catholic People's Party
The Catholic People's Party ( nl, Katholieke Volkspartij, KVP) was a Catholic Christian democratic political party in the Netherlands. The party was founded in 1945 as a continuation of the Roman Catholic State Party, which was a continuation of ...
(KVP) and the Labour Party, which was accepted by parliament, stated that the declaration of Jonkman in parliament should become a part of the Linggadjati agreement. Duly accepted, the Netherlands thus unilaterally 'amended' the Linggadjati agreement to the effect that New Guinea would remain Dutch. Labour parliamentary group leader
Marinus van der Goes van Naters
Marinus van der Goes van Naters (21 December 1900 – 12 February 2005) was a Dutch politician of the defunct Social Democratic Workers' Party (SDAP) and later the Labour Party (PvdA) and lawyer.
Background and early career
He was born in Ni ...
said afterwards the Labour Party entered the motion with the KVP because it feared the Catholics otherwise might reject the Linggadjati agreements.
The Indonesians did not accept this unilateral amendment. In order not to jeopardise the scheduled transfer of sovereignty, the Indonesian vice-president
Mohammad Hatta
Mohammad Hatta (; 12 August 1902 – 14 March 1980) was an Indonesian statesman and nationalist who served as the country's first vice president. Known as "The Proclamator", he and a number of Indonesians, including the first president of Indone ...
offered to maintain Dutch sovereignty over New Guinea for one year and reopen the negotiations afterwards.
1949–1956
Thus in 1949, when the rest of the Dutch East Indies became fully independent as Indonesia, the Dutch retained sovereignty over western New Guinea, and took steps to prepare it for independence as a separate country. Some five thousand teachers were flown there. The Dutch put an emphasis upon political, business, and civic skills. On 8 February 1950
Stephan Lucien Joseph van Waardenburg
Stephan Lucien Joseph van Waardenburg (21 February 1900 – 4 April 1975) was the first Dutch-appointed governor of Dutch New Guinea.
Early career
Van Waardenburg was born in Buitenzorg in the Dutch East Indies to Dirk Adriaan and Stephanie (Galla ...
was appointed the first Governor (De Gouverneur) of Dutch New Guinea. The first local naval cadets graduated in 1955 and the first army brigade become operational in 1956.
1957–1961
![GonsalvesPapuas1958](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/GonsalvesPapuas1958.jpg)
Tensions regarding the
Dutch-Indonesian dispute over Dutch New Guinea escalated in December 1957 following Indonesia's defeat in the UN General Assembly on 29 November 1957 to pass a resolution in favour of Indonesia's claim to the territory. Sukarno responded by allowing the seizure of Dutch enterprises operating in Indonesia and announcing the intended expulsion of Dutch residents from Indonesia. The increased tensions surrounding the dispute encouraged the Dutch to accelerate their plans to move the disputed territory towards an act of self-determination.
Elections
An election is a formal group decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold public office.
Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has operate ...
were held in January 1961 and the
New Guinea Council
The New Guinea Council ( nl, Nieuw-Guinea Raad) was a unicameral representative body formed in the Dutch colony of Netherlands New Guinea in 1961.
History
Prior to the formation of the New Guinea Council, there existed a Council of Directors, w ...
officially took office on 5 April 1961, to prepare for full independence by the end of that decade. The Dutch endorsed the council's selection of a new
national anthem
A national anthem is a patriotic musical composition symbolizing and evoking eulogies of the history and traditions of a country or nation. The majority of national anthems are marches or hymns in style. American, Central Asian, and European n ...
and the
Morning Star as the new national flag on 1 December 1961.
Following the raising of the Papuan National Flag on 1 December 1961, tensions further escalated. On 19 December 1961 Sukarno issued the ''
Tri Komando Rakjat'' (People's Triple Command), calling the Indonesian people to defeat the formation of an independent state of West Papua, raise the Indonesian flag in that country, and be ready for mobilisation at any time.
Since 1962
Escalation to low-level conflict
In 1962 Indonesia launched a significant campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations against the disputed territory, beginning with a seaborne infiltration launched by Indonesian forces on 15 January 1962. The Indonesian attack was comprehensively defeated by Dutch forces including the Dutch destroyers ''Evertsen'' and ''Kortenaer'', the so-called
Vlakke Hoek incident. Amongst the casualties was the Indonesian Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff; Commodore
Yos Sudarso
Commodore Yosaphat "Yos" Sudarso (24 November 1925 – 15 January 1962) was an Indonesian naval officer killed at the Battle of Arafura Sea. At the time of his death, Yos Sudarso was deputy chief of staff of the Indonesian Navy and in charge ...
. Unbeknown to the Indonesians, Dutch Signals Intelligence had been able to intercept Indonesian communications, allowing Dutch forces to successfully anticipate Indonesia's infiltration attempts throughout 1962. Forced to regroup, the Indonesians relaunched their campaign of infiltrations in March 1962. In the coming months over 500 Indonesian paratroops and special forces were covertly inserted into Dutch New Guinea, only to be decisively defeated by Dutch forces with the assistance of the indigenous population.
Ellsworth Bunker proposal
Facing mounting international diplomatic pressure and the prospect of an Indonesian invasion force, the Dutch conceded to re-entering negotiations and agreed to the
Ellsworth Bunker
Ellsworth F. Bunker (May 11, 1894 – September 27, 1984) was an American businessman and diplomat (including being the ambassador to Argentina, Italy, India, Nepal and South Vietnam). He is perhaps best known for being a hawk on the war in Vietn ...
proposal on 28 July 1962, for a staged transition from Dutch to Indonesian control via UN administration, on the condition that a plebiscite would be held in future in the territory.
[Penders,"The West New Guinea Debacle", p. 375] The agreement was signed on 15 August 1962 at the UN Headquarters in New York and the territory was placed under the
United Nations Temporary Executive Authority
The United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) and the United Nations Security Force (UNSF) in West New Guinea was established during October 1962 in accord with General Assembly Resolution 1752 as requested in Article two of the New ...
in October 1962. It was subsequently transferred to Indonesia in May 1963.
The territory formally became part of Indonesia in 1969 after the Indonesian government, who shifted to
New Order under President
Suharto
Suharto (; ; 8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesian army officer and politician, who served as the second and the longest serving president of Indonesia. Widely regarded as a military dictator by international observers, Suharto ...
starting from 1966, conducted a Bunker proposal-based plebiscite termed the
Act of Free Choice
The Act of Free Choice ( id, Penentuan Pendapat Rakyat, PEPERA, Determination of the People's Opinion) was a controversial plebiscite held between 14 July and 2 August 1969 in which 1,025 people selected by the Indonesian military in Western New ...
. The result, which under strong pressure from the military, unanimously wanted to become part of Indonesia. The UN General Assembly later accepted the result via the
UN Resolution 2504. This act has been criticised by some in the international community, including the group ''International Parliamentarians for West Papua'', which has termed the act "the act of no choice".
Governors
* Jan Pieter Karel van Eechoud (29 December 1949 – 8 February 1950; acting)
*
Stephan Lucien Joseph van Waardenburg
Stephan Lucien Joseph van Waardenburg (21 February 1900 – 4 April 1975) was the first Dutch-appointed governor of Dutch New Guinea.
Early career
Van Waardenburg was born in Buitenzorg in the Dutch East Indies to Dirk Adriaan and Stephanie (Galla ...
(8 February 1950 – 24 April 1953)
* Jan van Baal (24 April 1953 – 31 March 1958)
* Jan Christoffel Baarspul (31 March 1958 – 1 May 1958; acting)
* Pieter Johannes Platteel (1 May 1958 – 28 September 1962)
* Henk Veldkamp (28 September 1962 – 1 October 1962; acting)
See also
*
Papua (Indonesian province)
Papua is a province of Indonesia, comprising the northern coast of Western New Guinea together with island groups in Cenderawasih Bay to the west. It roughly follows the borders of Papuan customary region of Tabi Saireri. It is bordered by the ...
*
West Papua (province)
West Papua ( id, Papua Barat), formerly Irian Jaya Barat (West Irian), is a province of Indonesia. It covers the two western peninsulas of the island of New Guinea, the eastern half of the Bird's Head Peninsula (or Doberai Peninsula) and th ...
*
Free Papua Movement
"Free Papua Movement" ( id, Organisasi Papua Merdeka, OPM, tpi, Fri Wes Papua Grup) is an umbrella term for the independence movement established during 1965 in the West Papuan or West New Guinea territory which is currently being administrat ...
*
New Guinea
New Guinea (; Hiri Motu
Hiri Motu, also known as Police Motu, Pidgin Motu, or just Hiri, is a language of Papua New Guinea, which is spoken in surrounding areas of Port Moresby (Capital of Papua New Guinea).
It is a simplified version of ...
*
Kaiser-Wilhelmsland
Kaiser-Wilhelmsland ("Emperor William's Land") formed part of German New Guinea (german: Deutsch-Neuguinea), the South Pacific protectorate of the German Empire. Named in honour of Wilhelm I, who reigned as German Emperor () from 1871 to 1888, i ...
*
Western New Guinea
Western New Guinea, also known as Papua, Indonesian New Guinea, or Indonesian Papua, is the western half of the Melanesian island of New Guinea which is administered by Indonesia. Since the island is alternatively named as Papua, the region ...
*
Territory of New Guinea
The Territory of New Guinea was an Australian-administered United Nations trust territory on the island of New Guinea from 1914 until 1975. In 1949, the Territory and the Territory of Papua were established in an administrative union by the nam ...
*
German New Guinea
German New Guinea (german: Deutsch-Neu-Guinea) consisted of the northeastern part of the island of New Guinea and several nearby island groups and was the first part of the German colonial empire. The mainland part of the territory, called , ...
*
West New Guinea dispute
The West New Guinea dispute (1950–1962), also known as the West Irian dispute, was a diplomatic and political conflict between the Netherlands and Indonesia over the territory of Dutch New Guinea. While the Netherlands had ceded sovereignty ov ...
*
Papua Conflict
The Papua conflict is an ongoing conflict in Western New Guinea between Indonesia and the Free Papua Movement ( id , Organisasi Papua Merdeka, OPM). Subsequent to the withdrawal of the Dutch administration from the Netherlands New Guinea in ...
*
Republic of West Papua
The Republic of West Papua ( id, Republik Papua Barat) is a proposed state consisting of the Western New Guinea region. The region has been administered by Indonesia since 1 May 1963 under several names in the following order, West Irian, Irian ...
References
Further reading
* Bone, Robert C. ''The Dynamics of the Western New Guinea (Irian Barat) Problem'' (Cornell U.P. 1958)
* Finney, B.R. "Partnership in developing the New Guinea Highlands 1948–68," ''Journal of Pacific History'' 5 (1970),
* Henderson, William, ''West New Guinea. The dispute and its settlement'' (1973).
*
Lijphart, Arend, ''The trauma of decolonisation. The Dutch and West New Guinea'' (New Haven 1966).
* Markin, Terence. ''The West Irian Dispute'' (U of Michigan Press, 1996).
* Penders, C.L.M., ''The West New Guinea debacle. Dutch decolonisation and Indonesia 1945–1962'', Leiden 2002
KITLV
The Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies ( nl, Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, lit = Royal Institute for the Linguistics, Geography and Ethnology, abbreviated: KITLV) at Leiden was founded ...
* Ploeg, Anton. "Colonial land law in Dutch New Guinea," ''Journal of Pacific History'' (1999) 34#2 pp 191–203
* Pouwer, Jan. "The colonisation, decolonisation and recolonisation of West New Guinea," ''Journal of Pacific History'' (1999) 34#2 pp 157–79
* Saltford. John. ''The United Nations and the Indonesian Takeover of West Papua, 1962–1969'' (2003)
In Dutch
*
Doel, H.W. van den, ''Afscheid van Indië. De val van het Nederlandse imperium in Azië'' (Amsterdam 2001).
* Drooglever, P.J., ''Een daad van vrije keuze. De Papoea’s van westelijk Nieuw-Guinea en de grenzen van het zelfbeschikkingsrecht'' (Amsterdam 2005).
* Holst Pellekaan, R.E. van, I.C. de Regt, J.F. Bastiaans, ''Patrouilleren voor de Papoea's: de Koninklijke Marine in Nederlands Nieuw-Guinea'' (Amsterdam 1989).
* Holst Pellekaan, R.E. van, I.C. de Regt, ''Operaties in de Oost: de Koninklijke Marine in de Indische archipel (1945–1951)'' (Amsterdam 2003).
* Huydecoper van Nigteveld, J.L.R., ''Nieuw-Guinea. Het einde van een koloniaal beleid'' (Den Haag 1990)
* Gase, Ronald, ''Misleiding of zelfbedrog. Een analyse van het Nederlandse Nieuw-Guinea-beleid aan de hand van gesprekken met betrokken politici en diplomaten'' (Baarn 1984).
*
Geus, P.B.R. de, ''De Nieuw-Guinea kwestie. Aspecten van buitenlands beleid en militaire macht'' (Leiden 1984).
* Jansen van Galen, John, ''Ons laatste oorlogje. Nieuw-Guinea: de Pax Neerlandica, de diplomatieke kruistocht en de vervlogen droom van een Papoea-natie'' (Weesp 1984).
* Klein, W.C. e.a., ''Nieuw-Guinea'', 3 dln. (Den Haag 1953/1954).
* Meijer, Hans, ''Den Haag-Djakarta. De Nederlands Indonesische betrekkingen 1950–1962'' (Utrecht 1994).
* Idem, "`Het uitverkoren land'. De lotgevallen van de Indo-Europese kolonisten op Nieuw-Guinea 1949–1962", ''Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis'' 112 (1999) 353–384.
* Schoorl, Pim (red.), ''Besturen in Nederlands-Nieuw-Guinea 1945 -1962'' (Leiden, 1996).
* Smit, C., ''De liquidatie van een imperium. Nederland en Indonesië 1945–1962'' (Amsterdam 1962).
* van Holst-Pellekaan, R.E., de Regst, I.C. and Bastiaans, I.F.J. (ed.), ''Patrouilleren voor de Papoea's: de Koninklijke Marine in Nederlands Nieuw-Guinea 1945–1960'' (Amsterdam, 1989).
* Vlasblom, Dirk, ''Papoea. Een geschiedenis'' (Amsterdam 2004).
* Wal, Hans van de, ''Een aanvechtbare en onzekere situatie. De Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk en Nieuw-Guinea 1949–1962'' (Hilversum 2006).
External links
The Dutch New Guinea Dispute – Operation Trikora 1961–1962Dutch New Guinea in HD Color 1949–1962Dutch New Guinea Dispute 1949–1962
{{Coord missing, Indonesia
Former Dutch colonies
History of Western New Guinea
1660 establishments in the Dutch Empire
1824 establishments in the Dutch East Indies
1962 disestablishments in Asia
Former colonies in Asia
1949 establishments in the Dutch Empire
Christian states
States and territories established in 1949
States and territories disestablished in 1962