A nefesh (plural: ''nefashot'') is a Semitic monument placed near a grave so as to be seen from afar.

Nabataea

In a Nabataean

votive A votive offering or votive deposit is one or more objects displayed or deposited, without the intention of recovery or use, in a sacred place for religious purposes. Such items are a feature of modern and ancient societies and are generally ...

inscription Epigraphy () is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the w ...

from

Salkhad Salkhad ( ar, صَلْخَد, Ṣalḫad) is a Syrian city in the As-Suwayda Governorate, southern Syria. It is the capital of Salkhad District, one of the governorate's three districts. It has a population of 15,000 inhabitants. It is located ...

, an

Aramaic The Aramaic languages, short Aramaic ( syc, ܐܪܡܝܐ, Arāmāyā; oar, 𐤀𐤓𐤌𐤉𐤀; arc, 𐡀𐡓𐡌𐡉𐡀; tmr, אֲרָמִית), are a language family containing many varieties (languages and dialects) that originated in ...

heap of stones set up in memorial is described as "for

Allat Al-Lat ( ar, اللات, translit=Al-Lāt, ), also spelled Allat, Allatu and Alilat, is a pre-Islamic Arabian goddess worshipped under various associations throughout the entire Arabian Peninsula, including Mecca where she was worshipped alongs ...

and her ''wgr''", a term equated to the

Hasaitic Hasaitic is an Ancient North Arabian dialect attested in inscriptions in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia at Thaj, Hinna, Qatif, Ras Tanura, Abqaiq in the al-Hasa region, Ayn Jawan, Mileiha and at Uruk Uruk, also known as Warka or War ...

''nephesh''. In Sabaean, this term could mean a

tumulus A tumulus (plural tumuli) is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds or ''kurgans'', and may be found throughout much of the world. A cairn, which is a mound of stones bu ...

above a tomb, while in

Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...

this term could indicate a grotto or a tomb. The term ''nephesh'' is also linked to the

Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...

'' stele''. An

aniconic Aniconism is the absence of artistic representations (''icons'') of the natural and supernatural worlds, or it is the absence of representations of certain figures in religions. It is a feature of various cultures, particularly of cultures which a ...

culture, the Nabataean representation of deities lacked figural imagery. Related to betyls, ''nepheshes'' served as aniconic memorial markers for the dead. Unlike the

Israelite The Israelites (; , , ) were a group of Semitic-speaking tribes in the ancient Near East who, during the Iron Age, inhabited a part of Canaan. The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in the Merneptah Stele o ...

prohibition of the graven image, Nabataean aniconism allows anthropomorphic representation of deities but demonstrates a preference for non- figural imagery. Betyls are one form of Nabataean aniconic sculpture. Often explained as representations of

Dushara Dushara, (Nabataean Arabic: 𐢅𐢈𐢝𐢛𐢀‎ ''dwšrʾ'') also transliterated as Dusares, is a pre-Islamic Arabian god worshipped by the Nabataeans at Petra and Madain Saleh (of which city he was the patron). Safaitic inscriptions imply he ...

, the central Nabataean deity, betyls occur in a wide variety of shapes, groupings, and niches. This variety suggests that betyls may be representative of other deities as well. The Nabataean ''nephesh'' is a standing stone,

obelisk An obelisk (; from grc, ὀβελίσκος ; diminutive of ''obelos'', " spit, nail, pointed pillar") is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape or pyramidion at the top. Originally constructed by An ...

oid in shape, often featuring a blossom/pinecone or stylized crown on the top. Roughly carved or engraved in

bas-relief Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces are bonded to a solid background of the same material. The term '' relief'' is from the Latin verb ''relevo'', to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that th ...

, these structures are often set upon a base that bears the name of the deceased. Occurring outside and inside tombs, some are engraved near or in votive niches. However, many ''nepheshes'' can be found unconnected from tombs, and many line the paths to Petra or along other protruding rock faces such as those of the

Siq The Siq ( ar, السيق, transliterated ''al-Sīq'', transcribed ''as-Sīq'', literally 'the Shaft') is the main entrance to the ancient Nabatean city of Petra in southern Jordan. Also known as Siqit, it is a dim, narrow gorge (in some points ...

. An example of this type of funerary marker can be found in the Obelisk Tomb and Bab el-Siq Triclinium, Petra,

Jordan Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Rive ...

Jerusalem

Some examples of monumental funerary sculpture near Jerusalem bear inscriptions that include the term ''nephesh'', and the word is generally accepted as a reference to the pyramid structure above or beside the tomb.

Tomb of Absalom

Standing among a group of tombs in

Jerusalem Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...

, the

tomb of Absalom The Tomb of Absalom (), also called Absalom's Pillar, is an ancient monumental rock-cut tomb with a conical roof located in the Kidron Valley in Jerusalem, a few metres from the Tomb of Zechariah and the Tomb of Benei Hezir. Although traditional ...

is an important example of Late Second Temple funerary architecture. To the lower left of the entrance to the tomb, the word ''nephesh'' is inscribed in Greek. In this context, the Greek ''nephesh'' is translated as two Hebrew-Aramaic words as ''nephesh'' and , now interpreted as an amalgam of "tomb" and "stele." The carved rock is thus a memorial that evokes the essence or spirit of the deceased.

Jason's Tomb

Dated to the first century BCE,

Jason's Tomb Jason's Tomb (Hebrew: ''kever Yason'') is a rock-cut tombs, rock-cut tomb dating to the first century Common Era, BCE in the Hasmonean period, discovered in the Rehavia neighborhood in Jerusalem, Israel. It has been identified as the burial site ...

bears an Aramaic inscription that states: "because I built for you a tomb (''nephesh'') and a memorial (), be in peace in Jer a e."

Tomb of Benei Hezir

The

Tomb of Benei Hezir The Tomb of Benei Hezir ( he, קבר בני חזיר), previously known as the Tomb of Saint James, is the oldest of four monumental rock-cut tombs that stand in the Kidron Valley, adjacent to the Tomb of Zechariah and a few meters from the Tomb o ...

also bears an epithet in Hebrew that states: "This is the tomb and the stele/memorial (''nephesh'') of

Eleazar Eleazar (; ) or Elʽazar was a priest in the Hebrew Bible, the second High Priest, succeeding his father Aaron after he died. He was a nephew of Moses. Biblical narrative Eleazar played a number of roles during the course of the Exodus, from cr ...

...".N. Avigad. ''Ancient Monuments in the Kidron Valley.'' Jerusalem:Israel Exploration Society. 1954.

Nabataea

Jerusalem

Tomb of Absalom

Jason's Tomb

Tomb of Benei Hezir

References

Further reading