The term Navajo Wars covers at least three distinct periods of conflict in the American West: the
Navajo against the Spanish (late 16th century through 1821); the Navajo against the Mexican government (1821 through 1848); and the Navajo against the United States (after the 1847–48
Mexican–American War
The Mexican–American War, also known in the United States as the Mexican War and in Mexico as the (''United States intervention in Mexico''), was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848. It followed the 1 ...
). These conflicts ranged from small-scale raiding to large expeditions mounted by governments into territory controlled by the Navajo. The Navajo Wars also encompass the widespread raiding that took place throughout the period; the Navajo raided other tribes and nearby settlements, who in return raided into Navajo territory, creating a cycle of raiding that perpetuated the conflict.
Spanish period
Facundo Melgares, the last Spanish governor of New Mexico before independence in 1821, conducted two unsuccessful expeditions against the
Navajo,
who were attacking the New Mexican settlers. In October 1821 he sued for peace.
Timeline
* 1582: Espejo-Beltrain "found here peaceful Indian mountaineers" called Querechos. This party did not linger around
Acoma Acoma may refer to:
* ''Acoma'' (beetle), a scarab beetle genus of subfamily Melolonthinae
* Acoma Pueblo, a Native American pueblo
* Acoma, Nevada, a ghost town
* Acoma Township, McLeod County, Minnesota, US
* , more than one ship of the US Navy
...
because the Querechose who carried on trade with the Pueblo were known to come to their aid in times of conflict
* 1630: Fray Benevides arranges a peace between the
Tewas and
Navajo.
* 1638: Governor Luis de Rosa encourages Navajo to raid the missions of his political enemy the
Franciscan friars
, image = FrancescoCoA PioM.svg
, image_size = 200px
, caption = A cross, Christ's arm and Saint Francis's arm, a universal symbol of the Franciscans
, abbreviation = OFM
, predecessor =
, ...
.
* 1641–42: Franciscan friars mount a military campaign against Navajo, burning corn, taking prisoners, and killing some.
* 1644–47: Spanish fight Navajo living along the
San Juan River.
* 1659: Bernardo Lopez sends 40 Spanish soldiers and 800 allies into Navajo land.
* 1661: Lopez sanctions killing and capture of Navajo as slaves who came to Tewa to trade.
* 1669: Spanish attack Navajo near Acoma.
* 1677–78: Navajo actively raiding Spanish pueblos. Spanish mount three different scorched earth and slave gathering campaigns.
* 1680: Navajo probably join
Pueblos
The Puebloans or Pueblo peoples, are Native Americans in the Southwestern United States who share common agricultural, material, and religious practices. Currently 100 pueblos are actively inhabited, among which Taos, San Ildefonso, Acoma, Zu ...
. Start of Great Southwestern Revolt against Spanish.
* 1691: Navajo alert Pueblos and
Apaches that Spanish force was on its way.
* 1696: Navajo said to be inciting other tribes, combined with
Texas
Texas (, ; Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2020, it is the second-largest U.S. state by ...
in revolt.
* 1698–1699: End of Great Southwestern Revolt; Spanish boundaries remain constant.
Mexican period
Melgares's successor, Governor
José Antonio Vizcarra
José Antonio Vizcarra (or Viscarra) was a Mexican soldier who served as Governor of New Mexico from 1822 to 1823.
While conducting an expedition against the Navajos in 1823, he was the first to record the ruins of Chaco Canyon.
Career outline
Jo ...
met Navajo leaders at
Paguate on 12 February 1823. His terms essentially stated that the Mexicans would settle the Navajo in pueblos and energetically convert them to the Catholic religion. The Navajo were not interested in either of these proposals. They rejected the treaty and renewed the fight. Six New Mexicans were killed at
Socorro in April and eight more at
Sabinal in May.
On 18 June 1823, Vizcarra led 1,500 troops in a 74-day expedition against the Navajo of western New Mexico. His route took him through the
Chuska Mountains
''
The Chuska Mountains are an elongate range on the southwest Colorado Plateau and within the Navajo Nation whose highest elevations approach 10,000 feet. The range is about 80 by 15 km (50 by 10 miles). It trends north-northwest and is cross ...
to the Hopi mesas in what is now Arizona, then north towards Utah, reaching Oljeto Creek in what is now
San Juan County, Utah
San Juan County ( ) is a county in the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Utah. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population was 14,746. Its county seat is Monticello, while its most populous city is Blanding. The Utah State Legi ...
. Thirty-three Navajo were killed, of whom eight were women, and about 30 were captured. The expedition reached
Canyon de Chelly
Canyon de Chelly National Monument ( ) was established on April 1, 1931, as a unit of the National Park Service. Located in northeastern Arizona, it is within the boundaries of the Navajo Nation and lies in the Four Corners region. Reflecting ...
in what is now eastern Arizona.
In retaliation for Vizcarra's expedition, the Navajo raided Socorro again, and attacked Tome, Albuquerque, and reached the outskirts of Santa Fe.
The 1823 raid marked the start of a long period of raids and counter raids lasting until 1848 as New Mexicans took Navajo captive to work as slaves, and as Navajo raided to recover their people and to obtain livestock.
American period
The U.S. military assumed nominal control of the southwest from Mexico by 1846. And raids continued between the Navajo and the New Mexican civilians.
1846: Bear Springs Treaty
Following an invitation from a small party of American soldiers under the command of Captain John Reid who journeyed deep into Navajo country and contacted him,
Narbona
Narbona or Hastiin Narbona (1766 – August 31, 1849) was a Navajo chief who participated in the Navajo Wars. He was killed in a confrontation with U.S. soldiers on August 31, 1849.
Narbona was one of the wealthiest Navajo of his time due to th ...
and other Navajo negotiated a treaty of peace with Colonel
Alexander Doniphan
Alexander William Doniphan (July 9, 1808 – August 8, 1887) was a 19th-century American attorney, soldier and politician from Missouri who is best known today as the man who prevented the summary execution of Joseph Smith, founder of the Church ...
on November 21, 1846 at
Bear Springs,
Ojo del Oso
Ojo may refer to:
*Ōjō, a Japanese Buddhist term referring to rebirth in the Pure Land of Amitabha Buddha
*Ojo, a curious red bear cub who has a wild imagination and is good friends with Treelo on ''Bear in the Big Blue House''
*Ojo (comic), ' ...
(later the site of
Fort Wingate
Fort Wingate was a military installation near Gallup, New Mexico. There were two other locations in New Mexico called Fort Wingate: Seboyeta, New Mexico (1849–1862) and San Rafael, New Mexico (1862–1868). The most recent Fort Wingate (186 ...
). The treaty was not honored by young Navajo raiders who continued to steal stock from New Mexican villages and herders.
1849: Washington Expedition
On August 16, 1849 the US Army began an expedition into the heart of Navajo country on an organized reconnaissance to impress the Navajo with the might of the U.S. military. They also mapped the terrain and planned forts.
Col. John Washington, the military governor of New Mexico at the time, led the expedition. Forces included nearly 1000
infantry
Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and mar ...
(US and New Mexican volunteers), hundreds of horses and mules, a supply train, 55
Pueblo
In the Southwestern United States, Pueblo (capitalized) refers to the Native tribes of Puebloans having fixed-location communities with permanent buildings which also are called pueblos (lowercased). The Spanish explorers of northern New Spain ...
scouts, and four artillery guns. On August 29–30, 1849, Washington's expedition needed water, and began pillaging Navajo cornfields. Mounted Navajo warriors darted back and forth around Washington's troops to push them off. Washington reasoned he could pillage Navajo crops because the Navajo would have to reimburse the U.S. government for the cost of the expedition. Washington still suggested to the Navajo that in spite of the hostile situation, they and the whites could "still be friends if the Navajo came with their chiefs the next day and signed a treaty." This is what they did.
The next day Chief Narbona came to
Canyon de Chelly
Canyon de Chelly National Monument ( ) was established on April 1, 1931, as a unit of the National Park Service. Located in northeastern Arizona, it is within the boundaries of the Navajo Nation and lies in the Four Corners region. Reflecting ...
for a "talk peace", along with several other headmen. In the treaty the Navajo acknowledged the jurisdiction of the United States and allowed forts and trading posts in Navajo land. The United States, on its part promised "such donations
ndsuch other liberal and humane measures, as
tmay deem meet and proper". After reaching an accord, a scuffle broke out when a New Mexican thought he saw his stolen horse and tried to claim it from the Navajo. (The Navajo held that the horse had passed through several owners by this time, and rightfully belonged to its Navajo owner). Washington sided with the New Mexican. Since the Navajo owner took his horse and fled the scene, Washington told the New Mexican to pick out any Navajo horse he wanted. The rest of the Navajo also left. At this, Col. Washington ordered his soldiers to fire. Seven Navajo were killed in the volleys; the rest ran and could not be caught. One of the dying was Chief Narbona, who was scalped as he lay dying by a New Mexican souvenir hunter. This massacre prompted the warlike Navajo leaders such as
Manuelito
Chief Manuelito or Hastiin Chʼil Haajiní ("Sir Black Reeds", "Man of the Black Plants Place") (1818–1893) was one of the principal headmen of the Diné people before, during and after the Long Walk Period. ''Manuelito'' is the diminutive f ...
to gain influence over those who were advocates of peace.
1851–1860
Col.
Edwin Sumner conducted a campaign against the Navajo in 1851. He delegated Maj. Electus Backus to build
Fort Defiance in the middle of
Diné bikéyah (Navajo territory). Col Sumner entered
Canyon de Chelly
Canyon de Chelly National Monument ( ) was established on April 1, 1931, as a unit of the National Park Service. Located in northeastern Arizona, it is within the boundaries of the Navajo Nation and lies in the Four Corners region. Reflecting ...
but Navajo harassment attacks caused him to withdraw.
In 1855 a treaty was signed at Laguna Negra by
Manuelito
Chief Manuelito or Hastiin Chʼil Haajiní ("Sir Black Reeds", "Man of the Black Plants Place") (1818–1893) was one of the principal headmen of the Diné people before, during and after the Long Walk Period. ''Manuelito'' is the diminutive f ...
and Zarcillos Largos for the Navajo and Henry L. Dodge (Indian agent), Governor Merriweather, and General
John Garland. Two years later a severe drought hit the Navajo and decimated their livestock and agricultural resources, causing a famine in the winter of 1857-1858. A time of social disruption ensued. Surrounding tribes gradually increased their attacks on the weakened Navajo. The Navajo demanded in 1858 that Fort Defiance stop grazing their livestock on prime Navajo land. Soldiers shot 48 cattle and 8 horses belonging to Manuelito. Navajo warriors killed a servant of the commanding officer in retaliation for the killing of their people's livestock without compensation. The United States military demanded the murderer be brought to them, or they would begin a war. The Miles Campaign was sent against them, leaving Fort Defiance on September 9.
1860: Second Battle of Fort Defiance
In 1860 the U.S. military, Mexican-Americans,
Zunis
The Zuni ( zun, A:shiwi; formerly spelled ''Zuñi'') are Native American Pueblo peoples native to the Zuni River valley. The Zuni are a Federally recognized tribe and most live in the Pueblo of Zuni on the Zuni River, a tributary of the Lit ...
, and
Utes all raided Navajo land. The Navajo killed four soldiers from Fort Defiance in January. On April 29, Manuelito, Barboncito and 1,000 Navajo attacked the US army in the
Second Battle of Fort Defiance
The Second Battle of Fort Defiance was a military engagement fought during the United States period of the Navajo Wars. On April 29, 1860, about 1,000 Navajo warriors assaulted the United States Army garrison of Fort Defiance in New Mexico ...
.
[ Meanwhile, others raided sheep near Santa Fe. 400 New Mexicans under ]Manuel Antonio Chaves
Manuel Antonio Chaves or Chávez (October 18, 1818? – January, 1889), known as ''El Leoncito'' (the little lion), was a soldier in the Mexican Army and then became a rancher who lived in New Mexico. His life was full of incident, and his courag ...
formed a militia and raided Navajo land, followed by independent raids by citizens to take captives. In retaliation for the attack on Fort Defiance, Canby's Campaign set out in early October. Over the next several months seven army expeditions killed 23 Navajo and destroyed Navajo stock and crops.
In 1861, another treaty was signed at Fort Fauntleroy (later Fort Wingate
Fort Wingate was a military installation near Gallup, New Mexico. There were two other locations in New Mexico called Fort Wingate: Seboyeta, New Mexico (1849–1862) and San Rafael, New Mexico (1862–1868). The most recent Fort Wingate (186 ...
). Ft. Defiance was decommissioned on February 24. Raiding continued between groups of citizens and Navajo warriors. A dispute arose in August from allegations of cheating at a horse race between Navajo & New Mexican Volunteers forces at Fort Wingate, and Manuel Antonio Chaves
Manuel Antonio Chaves or Chávez (October 18, 1818? – January, 1889), known as ''El Leoncito'' (the little lion), was a soldier in the Mexican Army and then became a rancher who lived in New Mexico. His life was full of incident, and his courag ...
of the New Mexico Volunteers ended up ordering his men to fire into the Navajo. This incident incensed the Navajo, and they raided the New Mexicans.
1862: Civil War
The Confederate
Confederacy or confederate may refer to:
States or communities
* Confederate state or confederation, a union of sovereign groups or communities
* Confederate States of America, a confederation of secessionist American states that existed between 1 ...
forces pushed up the Rio Grande into New Mexico in 1862, But they were driven back into Texas by Union forces, of the Colorado Volunteers, assisted by some New Mexican Volunteer militia units. With the arrival of the California Volunteers under the command of General James H. Carleton, Fort Wingate was re-established at Ojo del Oso (formerly Fauntleroy). The Navajo took advantage of the distraction caused by the Confederate movements to step up their raids. The citizens complained to the government that Navajo and Apaches stole 30,000 sheep in 1862.
1863: Carson's Campaign
In 1863, as raids continued between the Navajo and the New Mexican militia, the New Mexico District Military Governor, General James Henry Carleton
James Henry Carleton (December 27, 1814 – January 7, 1873) was an officer in the US Army and a Union general during the American Civil War. Carleton is best known as an Indian fighter in the Southwestern United States.
Biography
Carleton wa ...
, told 18 Navajo chiefs that they must surrender by July 20, 1863, and move to Fort Sumner, at the Bosque Redondo
Fort Sumner was a military fort in New Mexico Territory charged with the internment of Navajo and Mescalero Apache populations from 1863 to 1868 at nearby Bosque Redondo.
History
On October 31, 1862, Congress authorized the construction of F ...
. In July, under orders from Gen. Carleton, Col. Kit Carson
Christopher Houston Carson (December 24, 1809 – May 23, 1868) was an American frontiersman. He was a fur trapper, wilderness guide, Indian agent, and U.S. Army officer. He became a frontier legend in his own lifetime by biographies and ...
began a simultaneous campaign against the Mescelaro Apache and Navajo. In a series of raids and skirmishes Carson's troops began rounding up Navajo and Apache and sending them to Bosque Redondo.
Between September 1863 and January 1864, Carson and his men chased the Navajo, killing and capturing a few. Crops were burned, stock was confiscated, hogan
A hogan ( or ; from Navajo ' ) is the primary, traditional dwelling of the Navajo people. Other traditional structures include the summer shelter, the underground home, and the sweat house. A hogan can be round, cone-shaped, multi-sided, or squ ...
s were burned. Carson attempted to capture a Navajo stronghold in the Battle of Canyon de Chelly
The Battle of Canyon de Chelly was fought in 1864 as part of the Navajo Wars. It was a successful operation for the United States Army which precipitated the Long Walk and was the final major military engagement between the Navajo and the Ame ...
. Although the army missed destroying the entire force, they destroyed much Navajo property.
1864: The Long Walk
Without food or shelter to sustain them through the winters, and continuously chased by the U.S. Army, groups of Navajo began to surrender.
Starting in January 1864, many bands and their leaders— Barboncito, Armijo Armijo is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* Alberto Armijo (born 1926), Costa Rican football player
*Antonio Armijo (1804–1850), Mexican explorer and merchant
*Christina Armijo (born 1951), American judge
* Dolores Elizabeth ...
, and finally in 1866 Manuelito
Chief Manuelito or Hastiin Chʼil Haajiní ("Sir Black Reeds", "Man of the Black Plants Place") (1818–1893) was one of the principal headmen of the Diné people before, during and after the Long Walk Period. ''Manuelito'' is the diminutive f ...
—surrendered or were captured and made what is called the " Long Walk" to the Bosque Redondo reservation at Fort Sumner
Fort Sumner was a military fort in New Mexico Territory charged with the internment of Navajo and Mescalero Apache populations from 1863 to 1868 at nearby Bosque Redondo.
History
On October 31, 1862, Congress authorized the construction of For ...
, New Mexico
)
, population_demonym = New Mexican ( es, Neomexicano, Neomejicano, Nuevo Mexicano)
, seat = Santa Fe
, LargestCity = Albuquerque
, LargestMetro = Tiguex
, OfficialLang = None
, Languages = English, Spanish ( New Mexican), Navajo, Ke ...
.
One Navajo elder said of the Long Walk:
By slow stages we traveled eastward by present Gallup and Shush Bìtó, Bear Spring, which is now called Fort Wingate
Fort Wingate was a military installation near Gallup, New Mexico. There were two other locations in New Mexico called Fort Wingate: Seboyeta, New Mexico (1849–1862) and San Rafael, New Mexico (1862–1868). The most recent Fort Wingate (186 ...
. You ask how they treated us? If there was room, the soldiers put the women and children on the wagons. Some even let them ride behind them on their horses. I have never been able to understand a people who killed you one day and on the next played with your children ...[Very Slim Man, Navajo elder, quoted by Richard Van Valkenburgh, '']Desert Magazine
''Desert Magazine'' was a monthly regional publication based in the Colorado Desert published between 1937 and 1985. A print version bearing the same name has been revived in the Coachella Valley town of Palm Desert near Palm Springs, California ...
'', April 1946, p. 23.
See also
* Apache Wars
* Arizona Territory
* Navajo Scouts
The Navajo Scouts were part of the United States Army Indian Scouts between 1873 and 1895. Generally, the scouts were signed up at Fort Wingate for six month enlistments. In the period 1873 to 1885, there were usually ten to twenty-five scouts at ...
Notes
References
*
* Kelly, Lawrence. ''Navajo Roundup''. Colorado: Pruett Pub. Co., 1970.
* Lavender, David. ''The Rockies'', Revised Edition. New York: Harper & Row
Harper is an American publishing house, the flagship imprint of global publisher HarperCollins based in New York City.
History
J. & J. Harper (1817–1833)
James Harper and his brother John, printers by training, started their book publishin ...
, 1975.
* Limerick, Patricia Nelson. ''The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West''. New York: W. W. Norton, 1987.
* McNitt, Frank. ''Navajo Wars''. University of New Mexico
The University of New Mexico (UNM; es, Universidad de Nuevo México) is a public research university in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Founded in 1889, it is the state's flagship academic institution and the largest by enrollment, with over 25,400 ...
, 1972.
* Sides, Hampton, ''Blood and Thunder: An Epic of the American West'', Doubleday (2006), hardcover, 462 pages,
* Smith, Duane A. ''Rocky Mountain West: Colorado, Wyoming, & Montana, 1859–1915''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992.
*
* Williams, Albert N. ''Rocky Mountain Country''. New York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1950.
* Yenne, Bill. ''Indian Wars: The Campaign for the American West''. Yardley: Westholme, 2005.
* Worecester, Donald. ''The Apaches: Eagles of the Southwest''.
{{Navajo Nation
17th-century conflicts
18th-century conflicts
19th-century conflicts
Indian wars of the American Old West
Battles involving the Navajo
Wars involving the indigenous peoples of North America
Navajo Wars
The term Navajo Wars covers at least three distinct periods of conflict in the American West: the Navajo against the Spanish (late 16th century through 1821); the Navajo against the Mexican government (1821 through 1848); and the Navajo agains ...
Navaho Wars