Indian art
Indian art consists of a variety of art forms, including painting, sculpture, pottery, and textile arts such as woven silk. Geographically, it spans the entire Indian subcontinent, including what is now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, N ...
evolved with an emphasis on inducing special spiritual or philosophical states in the audience, or with representing them symbolically.
aesthetic
Aesthetics, or esthetics, is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and taste, as well as the philosophy of art (its own area of philosophy that comes out of aesthetics). It examines aesthetic values, often expressed th ...
underpinning of all Indian classical dance and theatre, such as
Bharatanatyam
Bharatanatyam () is a major form of Indian classical dance that originated in Tamil Nadu. It is one of the eight widely recognized Indian classical dance forms, and expresses South Indian religious themes and spiritual ideas, particularly of S ...
,
kathak
Kathak ( hi, कथक; ur, کتھک) is one of the eight major forms of Indian classical dance. It is the classical dance from of Uttar Pradesh. The origin of Kathak is traditionally attributed to the traveling bards in ancient northern Ind ...
,
Kuchipudi
Kuchipudi () ( Telugu: ) is one of the eight major Indian classical dances. It originates from a village named Kuchipudi in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh.
Kuchipudi is a dance-drama performance, with its roots in the ancient Hindu Sa ...
,
Odissi
Odissi (), also referred to as Orissi in old literature, is a major ancient Indian classical dance that originated in the Hindu temple, temples of Odisha – an eastern coastal state of India.Manipuri,
Kudiyattam
Koodiyattam ( ml, കൂടിയാട്ടം; IAST: kūṭiyāṭṭaṁ; ) is a traditional performing art form in the state of Kerala, India. It is a combination of ancient Sanskrit theatre with elements of ''Koothu'', an ancient perfor ...
,
Kathakali
Kathakali ( ml, കഥകളി) is a major form of classical Indian dance. It is a "story play" genre of art, but one distinguished by the elaborately colourful make-up and costumes of the traditional male actor-dancers. It is native to the M ...
and others. Expressing ''Rasa'' in classical Indian dance form is referred to as ''Rasa-abhinaya''. The ''Nātyasāstra'' carefully delineates the ''bhavas'' used to create each ''rasa''.
The expressions used in Kudiyattam or Kathakali are extremely exaggerated theatrical expressions. The opposite of this interpretation is
Balasaraswathi
Tanjore Balasaraswati, also known as Balasaraswati (13 May 1918 – 9 February 1984), was an Indian dancer, and her rendering of Bharatanatyam, a classical dance style originated in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu, made this style of ...
's school of subtle and understated abhinaya of the devadasis. There were serious public debates when
Balasaraswathi
Tanjore Balasaraswati, also known as Balasaraswati (13 May 1918 – 9 February 1984), was an Indian dancer, and her rendering of Bharatanatyam, a classical dance style originated in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu, made this style of ...
condemned Rukmini Devi's puritanistic interpretations and applications of
Sringara
Sringara ( sa, शृङ्गार, ) is one of the nine rasas, usually translated as erotic love, romantic love, or as attraction or beauty. ''Rasa'' means "flavour", and the theory of rasa is the primary concept behind classical Indian arts inc ...
rasa. The abhinaya of the
Melattur style
{{Use Indian English, date=July 2020
The Melattur style of Bharatanatyam dance was developed largely out of the devadasi traditions and Melattur Bhagavata Mela by Mangudi Dorairaja Iyer (1900–1980), a sanyasi following Srividya Upasana. He ...
of abhinaya remains extremely rich in variations of the emotions, while the Pandanallur style expressions are more limited in scope.
History
Natyashastra
Rasa theory blossoms beginning with the
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
text Nātyashāstra (''nātya'' meaning "drama" and ''shāstra'' meaning "science of"), a work attributed to Bharata Muni where the Gods declare that drama is the 'Fifth Veda' because it is suitable for the degenerate age as the best form of religious instruction. The Nātyashāstra presents the aesthetic concepts of rasas and their associated bhāvas in Chapters Six and Seven respectively, which appear to be independent of the work as a whole. Eight rasas and associated bhāvas are named and their enjoyment is likened to savoring a meal: rasa is the enjoyment of flavors that arise from the proper preparation of ingredients and the quality of ingredients.
Kashmiri aestheticians
The theory of the rasas develops significantly with the Kashmiri aesthetician Ãndandavardhana's classic on poetics, the Dhvanyāloka which introduces the ninth rasa, shānta-rasa as a specifically religious feeling of peace (''śānta'') which arises from its bhāva, weariness of the pleasures of the world. The primary purpose of this text is to refine the literary concept ''dhvani'' or poetic suggestion, by arguing for the existence of ''rasa-dhvani'', primarily in forms of Sanskrit including a word, sentence or whole work "suggests" a real-world emotional state or bhāva, but thanks to
aesthetic distance Aesthetic distance refers to the gap between a viewer's conscious reality and the fictional reality presented in a work of art. When a reader becomes fully engrossed in the illusory narrative world of a book, the author has achieved a close aesthet ...
, the sensitive spectator relishes the rasa, the aesthetic flavor of tragedy, heroism or romance.
The 9th - 10th century master of the religious system known as "the nondual Shaivism of Kashmir" (or
Kashmir Shaivism
Kashmir Shaivism or Trika Shaivism, is a nondualist tradition of Shaiva-Shakta Tantra which originated sometime after 850 CE. Since this tradition originated in Kashmir it is often called "Kashmiri Shaivism". It later went on to become a pan ...
) and aesthetician,
Abhinavagupta
Abhinavagupta (c. 950 – 1016 CE) was a philosopher, mystic and aesthetician from Kashmir. He was also considered an influential musician, poet, dramatist, exegete, theologian, and logicianRe-accessing Abhinavagupta, Navjivan Rastogi, ...
brought rasa theory to its pinnacle in his separate commentaries on the Dhvanyāloka, the Dhvanyāloka-locana (translated by Ingalls, Masson and Patwardhan, 1992) and the Abhinavabharati, his commentary on the Nātyashāstra, portions of which are translated by Gnoli and Masson and Patwardhan. Abhinavagupta offers for the first time a technical definition of rasa which is the universal bliss of the Self or
Atman Atman or Ātman may refer to:
Film
* ''Ātman'' (1975 film), a Japanese experimental short film directed by Toshio Matsumoto
* ''Atman'' (1997 film), a documentary film directed by Pirjo Honkasalo
People
* Pavel Atman (born 1987), Russian hand ...
colored by the emotional tone of a drama.
Inclusion of bhakti
In the literary compositions, the emotion of Bhakti as a feeling of adoration towards God was long considered only a minor feeling fit only for Stothras, but not capable of being developed into a separate rasa as the sole theme of a whole poem or drama. In the tenth century, it was still struggling, and Aacharya
Abhinavagupta
Abhinavagupta (c. 950 – 1016 CE) was a philosopher, mystic and aesthetician from Kashmir. He was also considered an influential musician, poet, dramatist, exegete, theologian, and logicianRe-accessing Abhinavagupta, Navjivan Rastogi, ...
mentions Bhakti in his commentary on the
Natya Shastra
The ''Nāṭya Śāstra'' (, ''Nāṭyaśāstra'') is a Sanskrit treatise on the performing arts. The text is attributed to sage Bharata Muni, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary ...
, as an important accessory sentiment of the Shanta Rasa, which he strove with great effort to establish. However, just as Shantha slowly attained a state of primacy that it was considered the Rasa of Rasas, Bhakti also soon began to loom large and despite the lukewarmness of the great run of Alankarikas, had the service of some distinguished advocates, including
Tyagaraja
Thyagaraja (Telugu: త్యాగరాజ) (4 May 1767 – 6 January 1847), also known as Thyāgayya and in full as Kakarla Thyagabrahmam, was a composer and vocalist of Carnatic music, a form of Indian classical music. Tyagaraja and his ...
. It is the
Bhagavata
The Bhagavata tradition, also called Bhagavatism, refers to an ancient religious sect that traced its origin to the region of Mathura. After its syncretism with the Brahmanical tradition of Vishnu, Bhagavatism became a pan-Indian tradition ...
that gave the great impetus to the study of Bhakti from an increasingly aesthetic point of view.
Attention to rasas
Poets like
Kālidāsa
Kālidāsa (''fl.'' 4th–5th century CE) was a Classical Sanskrit author who is often considered ancient India's greatest poet and playwright. His plays and poetry are primarily based on the Vedas, the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata and t ...
were attentive to rasa, which blossomed into a fully developed aesthetic system. Even in contemporary India the term ''rasa'' denoting "flavor" or "essence" is used colloquially to describe the aesthetic experiences in films.
The navarasas
Bharata Muni enunciated the eight Rasas in the '' Nātyasāstra'', an ancient Sanskrit text of
dramatic theory
Dramatic theory is a term used for works that attempt to form theories about theatre and drama. Examples of ancient dramatic theory include Aristotle's '' Poetics'' from Ancient Greece and Bharata Muni's ''Natyasastra'' from ancient India.
Drama ...
and other performance arts, written between 200 BC and 200 AD. In the
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
n performing arts, a ''rasa'' is a sentiment or emotion evoked in each member of the audience by the art. The ''Natya Shastra'' mentions six rasa in one section, but in the dedicated section on ''rasa'' it states and discusses eight primary ''rasa''. Each rasa, according to Nātyasāstra, has a presiding deity and a specific colour. There are 4 pairs of rasas. For instance, Hāsya arises out of
Sringara
Sringara ( sa, शृङ्गार, ) is one of the nine rasas, usually translated as erotic love, romantic love, or as attraction or beauty. ''Rasa'' means "flavour", and the theory of rasa is the primary concept behind classical Indian arts inc ...
. The Aura of a frightened person is black, and the aura of an angry person is red. Bharata Muni established the following:
* (शृङ्गारः): Romance, Love, attractiveness. Presiding deity:
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
Shiva
Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
. Colour: white
* (रौद्रं): Fury. Presiding deity:
Shiva
Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
. Colour: red
* (कारुण्यं): Compassion, mercy. Presiding deity:
Yama
Yama (Devanagari: यम) or Yamarāja (यमराज), is a deity of death, dharma, the south direction, and the underworld who predominantly features in Hindu and Buddhist religion, belonging to an early stratum of Rigvedic Hindu deities ...
Shiva
Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
. Colour: blue
* (भयानकं): Horror, terror. Presiding deity:
Yama
Yama (Devanagari: यम) or Yamarāja (यमराज), is a deity of death, dharma, the south direction, and the underworld who predominantly features in Hindu and Buddhist religion, belonging to an early stratum of Rigvedic Hindu deities ...
. Colour: black
* (वीरं): Heroism. Presiding deity:
Indra
Indra (; Sanskrit: इन्द्र) is the king of the devas (god-like deities) and Svarga (heaven) in Hindu mythology. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. volumes/ref> I ...
. Colour:
saffron
Saffron () is a spice derived from the flower of ''Crocus sativus'', commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson stigma and styles, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent i ...
* (अद्भुतं): Wonder, amazement. Presiding deity:
Brahma
Brahma ( sa, ब्रह्मा, Brahmā) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the trinity of supreme divinity that includes Vishnu, and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 21 ...
. Colour: yellow
Śāntam rasa
A ninth rasa was added by later authors. This addition had to undergo a good deal of struggle between the sixth and the tenth centuries, before it could be accepted by the majority of the Alankarikas, and the expression "''Navarasa''" (the nine rasas), could come into vogue.
*: Peace or tranquility. deity:
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
. Colour: perpetual white.
Shānta-rasa functions as an equal member of the set of rasas, but it is simultaneously distinct as being the most clear form of aesthetic bliss. Abhinavagupta likens it to the string of a jeweled necklace; while it may not be the most appealing for most people, it is the string that gives form to the necklace, allowing the jewels of the other eight rasas to be relished. Relishing the rasas and particularly shānta-rasa is hinted as being as-good-as but never-equal-to the bliss of Self-realization experienced by
yogis
A yogi is a practitioner of Yoga, including a sannyasin or practitioner of meditation in Indian religions.A. K. Banerjea (2014), ''Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha-Vacana-Sangraha'', Motilal Banarsidass, , pp. xxiii, 297-299, 331 T ...
.
See also
*
Abhinaya
Abhinaya (Sanskrit ''abhi-'' 'towards' + ''nii-'' 'leading/guide') is the art of expression in Indian aesthetics. More accurately it means "leading an audience towards" the experience (') of a sentiment ('). The concept, derived from Bharata Mun ...
*
Bishōnen
(; also transliterated ) is a Japanese term literally meaning "beautiful youth (boy)" and describes an aesthetic that can be found in disparate areas in East Asia: a young man of androgynous beauty. This word originated from the Tang dynasty ...
– A Japanese beauty concept with influence from Indian aesthetic concepts
* Nātyasāstra – An ancient Sanskrit text on performance arts and aesthetics
*
Nātyakalpadrumam
''Nātyakalpadrumam'' (നാട്യകല്പദ്രുമം in Malayalam, नाट्यकल्पद्रुमम् in Devanagari) is a book written by Guru Māni Mādhava Chākyār, considered the greatest exponent of Koo ...
*
Rasa lila
The rasalila (), also rendered the raslila or the ras dance, is part of the traditional story of Krishna described in Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavata Purana and literature such as the Gita Govinda, where he dances with Radha and the gopis ...
*
Sanskrit Literature
Sanskrit literature broadly comprises all literature in the Sanskrit language. This includes texts composed in the earliest attested descendant of the Proto-Indo-Aryan language known as Vedic Sanskrit, texts in Classical Sanskrit as well as s ...
* Sen, R. K., ''Aesthetic Enjoyment: Its Background in Philosophy and Medicine'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1966
* Sen, R. K., ''A Brief Introduction to a Comparative Study of Greek and Indian Aesthetics and Poetics'', Calcutta: Sen Ray & Co., 1954
* Sen, R. K., ''Nature of Aesthetic Enjoyment in Greek and Indian Analyses'', Indian Aesthetics and Art Activity, Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 1968
* Sukla, Ananta Charan, ''The Concept of Imitation in Greek and Indian Aesthetics'', Calcutta: Rupa & Co., 1977
* Sukla, Ananta Charan, ''Understanding and Enjoyment in Aesthetic Experience'', Journal of Comparative Literature and Aesthetics: 1978
* Sukla, Ananta Charan, ''Contemporary Indian Aesthetics'', Milan (Italy): Rubberttino, 1995
* Sukla, Ananta Charan, ''Representation in Painting and Drama: Arguments from Indian Aesthetics'', Journal of Comparative Literature and Aesthetics: 1992
* Sukla, Ananta Charan, ''Aesthetics Beyond/ Within Aesthetics: The Scope and Limits of Indian Aesthetics'', Journal of Comparative Literature and Aesthetics: 1995
* Sukla, Ananta Charan, ''Rasa, Sringara and Sringara Rasa: Aesthetics as Mass Culture in Indian Antiquity'', Lahti (Finland): 1995
* Sukla, Ananta Charan, ''Art, Nature and the Artifactuality of Art and Nature: A Plea for Environmental Aesthetics in Ancient India'', Journal of Comparative Literature and Aesthetics: 1996
* Sukla, Ananta Charan, ''Art, Reality and the Reality of the Arts: Ontology, Representation and The Sister Arts Theory in Indian Aesthetics'', Indian Response to Literary Theory, Delhi: 1996
* Sukla, Ananta Charan, ''Emotion, Aesthetic Experience and the Contextualist Turn'', International Yearbook of Aesthetics: 1996
* Sukla, Ananta Charan, ''Dhvani as a Pivot in Sanskrit Literary Aesthetics'', East and West in Aesthetics, Siena (Italy): 1997
* Sukla, Ananta Charan, ''Transculturality of Classical Indian Aesthetics'', Frontiers of Transculturality in Contemporary Aesthetics, Turin (Italy): 2001
*Sukla, Ananta Charan, ''Contemporary Indian Aesthetics'', Vishvanatha Kaviraja Institute (India): 1995
*Matthew Jones (January 2010). "Bollywood, Rasa and Indian Cinema: Misconceptions, Meanings and Millionaire". Visual Anthropology 23 (1): 33–43.
*