The National Agrarian Party ( ro, Partidul Național-Agrar or ''Partidul Național-Agrarian'', PNA) was a right-wing
agrarian party active in
Romania
Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
during the early 1930s. Established and led by poet
Octavian Goga
Octavian Goga (; 1 April 1881 – 7 May 1938) was a Romanian politician, poet, playwright, journalist, and translator.
Life and politics
Goga was born in Rășinari, near Sibiu.
Goga was an active member in the Romanian nationalisti ...
, it was originally a schism from the more moderate
People's Party, espousing
national conservatism
National conservatism is a nationalist variant of conservatism that concentrates on upholding national and cultural identity. National conservatives usually combine nationalism with conservative stances promoting traditional cultural values, ...
,
monarchism
Monarchism is the advocacy of the system of monarchy or monarchical rule. A monarchist is an individual who supports this form of government independently of any specific monarch, whereas one who supports a particular monarch is a royalist. ...
,
agrarianism
Agrarianism is a political and social philosophy that has promoted subsistence agriculture, smallholdings, and egalitarianism, with agrarian political parties normally supporting the rights and sustainability of small farmers and poor peasants ...
,
antisemitism
Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism.
Antis ...
, and
Germanophilia
A Germanophile, Teutonophile, or Teutophile is a person who is fond of German culture, German people and Germany in general, or who exhibits German patriotism in spite of not being either an ethnic German or a German citizen. The love of the ''Ge ...
; Goga was also positively impressed by
fascism
Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian, ultra-nationalist political ideology and movement,: "extreme militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral democracy and political and cultural liberalism, a belief in natural social hierarchy an ...
, but there is disagreement in the scholarly community as to whether the PNA was itself fascist. Its antisemitic rhetoric was also contrasted by the PNA's acceptance of some
Jewish
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
members, including
Tudor Vianu
Tudor Vianu (; January 8, 1898 – May 21, 1964) was a Romanian literary criticism, literary critic, art critic, poet, philosopher, academic, and translator. He had a major role on the reception and development of Modernism in Literature of Roma ...
and
Henric Streitman
Henric Ștefan Streitman (first name also Henric Șt., Enric, Henri or Henry, last name also Streitmann, Streittman, Ștraitman; 1873 – ''circa'' March 30, 1950) was a Romanian journalist, translator and political figure, who traversed the polit ...
. The group was generally suspicious of Romania's other
ethnic minorities
The term 'minority group' has different usages depending on the context. According to its common usage, a minority group can simply be understood in terms of demographic sizes within a population: i.e. a group in society with the least number o ...
, but in practice accepted members and external collaborators of many ethnic backgrounds, including the
Romani
Romani may refer to:
Ethnicities
* Romani people, an ethnic group of Northern Indian origin, living dispersed in Europe, the Americas and Asia
** Romani genocide, under Nazi rule
* Romani language, any of several Indo-Aryan languages of the Roma ...
Gheorghe A. Lăzăreanu-Lăzurică
Gheorghe A. Lăzăreanu-Lăzurică or George Lăzurică, also known as Lăzărescu-Lăzurică or Lăzărică (1892 – ?), was a leader of the Romani (Gypsy) community in Romania, also remembered for his support of Romania's interwar far-right. O ...
.
The PNA existed as a venue for supporting the authoritarian
King
King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen, which title is also given to the consort of a king.
*In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the tit ...
,
Carol II
Carol II (4 April 1953) was King of Romania from 8 June 1930 until his forced abdication on 6 September 1940. The eldest son of Ferdinand I, he became crown prince upon the death of his grand-uncle, King Carol I in 1914. He was the first of th ...
, whose political program it partly enacted. The National Agrarianist economic and social proposals included the protection of
smallholders, with echoes of
dirigisme
Dirigisme or dirigism () is an economic doctrine in which the state plays a strong directive (policies) role contrary to a merely regulatory interventionist role over a market economy. As an economic doctrine, dirigisme is the opposite of ''lai ...
and promises of
debt relief Debt relief or debt cancellation is the partial or total forgiveness of debt, or the slowing or stopping of debt growth, owed by individuals, corporations, or nations.
From antiquity through the 19th century, it refers to domestic debts, in particu ...
. It was strongly opposed to the more left-wing
National Peasants' Party
The National Peasants' Party (also known as the National Peasant Party or National Farmers' Party; ro, Partidul Național Țărănesc, or ''Partidul Național-Țărănist'', PNȚ) was an agrarian political party in the Kingdom of Romania. It w ...
, describing it as corrupt and denouncing its autonomist-regionalist tendencies. In
Parliament
In modern politics, and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: Representation (politics), representing the Election#Suffrage, electorate, making laws, and overseeing ...
, PNA representatives, largely inherited from the People's Party, collaborated mostly with two other anti-establishment groups: the
Georgist Liberals and the
Lupist Peasantists. The PNA was able to absorb some National Peasantist sections, primarily in
Bucharest
Bucharest ( , ; ro, București ) is the capital and largest city of Romania, as well as its cultural, industrial, and financial centre. It is located in the southeast of the country, on the banks of the Dâmbovița River, less than north of ...
and
Transylvania
Transylvania ( ro, Ardeal or ; hu, Erdély; german: Siebenbürgen) is a historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and south its natural border is the Carpathian Mountains, and to the west the Ap ...
.
The PNA registered its best result nationally in the
December 1933 election, when it took 4.1% of the vote. Despite its relative insignificance, its leader Goga was often perceived as a likely contender for the office of
Prime Minister
A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister is not ...
. The PNA had contacts in
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...
, who regarded it as a political ally. While cautious about the Nazis' take on international politics, Goga traveled to
Berlin
Berlin ( , ) is the capital and largest city of Germany by both area and population. Its 3.7 million inhabitants make it the European Union's most populous city, according to population within city limits. One of Germany's sixteen constitue ...
in late 1933, meeting
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 188930 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Nazi Germany, Germany from 1933 until Death of Adolf Hitler, his death in 1945. Adolf Hitler's rise to power, He rose to power as the le ...
and returning as an enthusiastic admirer. Moving closer to the
far-right
Far-right politics, also referred to as the extreme right or right-wing extremism, are political beliefs and actions further to the right of the left–right political spectrum than the standard political right, particularly in terms of being ...
and abandoning his own membership in the
Romanian Freemasonry, Goga sought alliances with the more radical movements. The PNA tried but failed to unite with the
Iron Guard
The Iron Guard ( ro, Garda de Fier) was a Romanian militant revolutionary fascist movement and political party founded in 1927 by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu as the Legion of the Archangel Michael () or the Legionnaire Movement (). It was strongly ...
and the
Romanian Front
The Romanian Front ( ro, Frontul Românesc, FR) was a moderate fascist party created in Romania in 1935. Led by former Prime Minister Alexandru Vaida-Voevod, it originated as a right-wing splinter group from the mainstream National Peasants' Part ...
, finally merging with the slightly more powerful
National-Christian Defense League
The National-Christian Defense League ( ro, Liga Apărării Național Creștine, LANC) was a Far-right politics, far-right political party of Romania formed by A. C. Cuza.
Origins
The LANC had its roots in the National Christian Union, formed in ...
in July 1935.
The resulting
National Christian Party
The National Christian Party ( ro, Partidul Național Creștin) was a radical-right authoritarian and strongly antisemitic political party in Romania active between 1935 and 1938. It was formed by a merger of Octavian Goga's National Agrarian Part ...
(PNC) offered a venue for conservative antisemites with fascist sympathies, but was rejected by PNA moderates, as well as by some of the League's radicals. A splinter group, led by
Ion Al. Vasilescu-Valjean and centered on
Romanați County
Romanați County was a county (Romanian: '' județ'') in the Kingdom of Romania, in southeastern part of the historical region of Oltenia. The county seat was Caracal.
The county was located in the southwestern part of Romania, in the southeaster ...
, continued to call itself PNA, surviving to at least 1937. Briefly serving as Prime Minister, Goga was asked to step down by Carol II, whose
1938 Constitution introduced a royal dictatorship. Goga died soon after; although the PNC was not repressed under the new regime, it suffered an internal crisis, with PNA men establishing a Union of National Awareness. Both it and other PNC factions were then absorbed by Carol's
National Renaissance Front
The National Renaissance Front ( ro, Frontul Renașterii Naționale, FRN; also translated as ''Front of National Regeneration'', ''Front of National Rebirth'', ''Front of National Resurrection'', or ''Front of National Renaissance'') was a Romani ...
.
History
Emergence
The party emerged with a split in the more mainstream People's Party (PP), which was led by General
Alexandru Averescu
Alexandru Averescu (; 9 March 1859 – 2 October 1938) was a Romanian marshal, diplomat and populist politician. A Romanian Armed Forces Commander during World War I, he served as Prime Minister of three separate cabinets (as well as being ''inter ...
. This followed a major dispute between Averescu and Goga, prompted by the latter's unconditional support for Carol II, who had taken the throne under disputed circumstances in 1930. Historian Adolf Minuț argues that Carol personally intervened to create a rift between the two men, this being one of a "web of Carlist machinations" to isolate his constitutionalist adversaries. The same is noted by memoirist Vasile Netea, who describes Carol as performing "
scissiparity
Fission, in biology, is the division of a single entity into two or more parts and the regeneration of those parts to separate entities resembling the original. The object experiencing fission is usually a cell, but the term may also refer to how ...
" on the old parties.
[Netea, p. 249] In January 1932, Goga had vaguely announced his bid for the PP chairmanship, while also hinting that he was prepared to leave with his partisans if his candidacy were to be rejected. On March 3, Averescu formally denounced Goga's maneuvers in a circular letter to regional affiliates, noting that a conspiracy was in place to break up the PP.
[Minuț (1999), p. 269]
In response, Goga accused Averescu of tarnishing the crown's prestige, claiming that his own faction was now Romania's "one monarchist party"; according to Goga, a reigning king was to be held as an expression of the "Romanian soul". Goga and his group were now situated on the extreme of
Romanian nationalism
Romanian nationalism is the nationalism which asserts that Romanians are a nation and promotes the cultural unity of Romanians. Its extremist variation is the Romanian ultranationalism.Aristotle KallisGenocide and Fascism: The Eliminationist Drive ...
, with "some sympathies toward fascism".
[Heinen, p. 175] However, their caucus was also able to absorb more moderate sections of the PP, leaving Averescu's group severely weakened. Averescu and his colleague,
Grigore Trancu-Iași Grigore, the equivalent of Gregory, is a Romanian-language first name. It may refer to:
*Grigore Alexandrescu (1810–1885), Romanian poet and translator
*Grigore Antipa (1866–1944), Romanian Darwinist biologist, ichthyologist, ecologist, oceano ...
, fought back by asking for all dissidents still holding seats in the
Assembly of Deputies to be deposed. This proposal was eventually defeated by a vote, during which the
National Liberal Party voted in Goga's favor.
[Minuț (1999), p. 273]
Goga's party originated with a PP congress at Enescu restaurant on March 12, attended by 45 of 65 sections, which proclaimed Goga as People's Party chairman. By March 21, Averescu was able to regain control over most PP chapters, though he lost all presence in places such as
Argeș,
Cluj
; hu, kincses város)
, official_name=Cluj-Napoca
, native_name=
, image_skyline=
, subdivision_type1 = Counties of Romania, County
, subdivision_name1 = Cluj County
, subdivision_type2 = Subdivisions of Romania, Status
, subdivision_name2 ...
, and
Mehedinți.
Following this confrontation, Goga announced he would take on the "painful task" of leaving Averescu's group. As noted by scholar Armin Heinen, the National Agrarians' genesis coincided with the parallel rise of the
Nazi Party
The Nazi Party, officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party (german: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP), was a far-right politics, far-right political party in Germany active between 1920 and 1945 that crea ...
in
Weimar Germany
The Weimar Republic (german: link=no, Weimarer Republik ), officially named the German Reich, was the government of Germany from 1918 to 1933, during which it was a Constitutional republic, constitutional federal republic for the first time in ...
: the PNA began organizing during
Weimar's presidential election, in which
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 188930 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Nazi Germany, Germany from 1933 until Death of Adolf Hitler, his death in 1945. Adolf Hitler's rise to power, He rose to power as the le ...
came second.
Goga's "general staff" included former minister
Ion Petrovici
Ion (Ioan) Petrovici (June 14, 1882 – February 17, 1972) was a Romanian professor of philosophy at the University of Iași and titular member of the Romanian Academy. He served as Minister of National Education in the Goga cabinet and Ministe ...
, alongside
Ion Al. Vasilescu-Valjean and C. Brăescu, who had been Vice Presidents of the Deputies' Assembly.
[Tr. R., "Știri—Note—Comentarii. Marea întrunire Național-Agrară ținută la Turtucaia", in ''Farul'', Issue 14/1933, p. 4] Three other prominent Averescu supporters,
Leon Scridon,
Silviu Dragomir Silviu may refer to:
* Silviu Bălace (born 1978), Romanian football player
* Silviu Berejan (1927–2007), Bessarabian writer from Moldova and member of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova
* Silviu Bindea (1912–1992), Romanian football player
*Si ...
and
Ioan Lupaș
Ioan Lupaș (9 August 1880 – 3 July 1967) was a Romanian historian, academic, politician, Orthodox theologian and priest. He was a member of the Romanian Academy.
Biography
Lupaș was born in Szelistye, now Săliște, Sibiu County (at the time ...
, also joined Goga during his departure. Early defectors also included a large part of the PP eminences in
Transylvania
Transylvania ( ro, Ardeal or ; hu, Erdély; german: Siebenbürgen) is a historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and south its natural border is the Carpathian Mountains, and to the west the Ap ...
and the
Banat
Banat (, ; hu, Bánság; sr, Банат, Banat) is a geographical and historical region that straddles Central and Eastern Europe and which is currently divided among three countries: the eastern part lies in western Romania (the counties of T ...
: Eugen P. Barbul, Sebastian Bornemisa, Laurian Gabor, and Petru Nemoianu.
This remained "the most painful" of all schisms endured by the PP.
[Hans-Christian Maner, "Despre elite și partide politice din România interbelică", in Vasile Ciobanu, Sorin Radu (eds.), ''Partide politice și minorități naționale din România în secolul XX'', Vol. III, p. 197. Sibiu: TechnoMedia, 2008. ] On April 10, 1932, this dissidence held its congress at Rio Cinema,
Bucharest
Bucharest ( , ; ro, București ) is the capital and largest city of Romania, as well as its cultural, industrial, and financial centre. It is located in the southeast of the country, on the banks of the Dâmbovița River, less than north of ...
. Its first presidium included Lupaș, General
Constantin Iancovescu,
Stan Ghițescu
Stan Ghițescu (June 2, 1881 – February 25, 1952) was a Romanian politician.
Born in Mârzănești, Teleorman County, Cicerone Ionițoiu"Victimele terorii comuniste. Arestați, torturați, întemnițați, uciși. Dicționar G"/ref> he atten ...
, Ilie Rădulescu, and Iancu Isvoranu; Goga was reconfirmed as People's Party chairman, before the party changed names. The "PNA" name was adopted hours later, following a motion submitted by deputy D. D. Burileanu—having been first submitted for discussion a week earlier, during a more private meeting of party leaders. The group registered as its electoral symbol "two dots within a circumference", sometimes described as a circle with "two eyes". Whether intentionally or not, this symbol closely resembled the circle used by a more democratic agrarian group, the
National Peasants' Party
The National Peasants' Party (also known as the National Peasant Party or National Farmers' Party; ro, Partidul Național Țărănesc, or ''Partidul Național-Țărănist'', PNȚ) was an agrarian political party in the Kingdom of Romania. It w ...
(PNȚ). Transylvanian defectors from the PNȚ initially organized some of the PNA branches, but, in June 1932, returned to their old party. More dedicated support came from the former PNȚ chapters in
Ilfov County
Ilfov () is the county that surrounds Bucharest, the capital of Romania. It used to be largely rural, but, after the fall of Communism, many of the county's villages and communes developed into high-income commuter towns, which act like suburbs ...
and the "Black" (northeastern)
sector of Bucharest, which were absorbed into Goga's new movement.
PNA cadres included four important figures in Romania's commercial and industrial life, who, as Netea writes, were especially treasured by Goga. These were Ghițescu,
Tilică Ioanid, I. D. Enescu, and Leon Gigurtu. The group also reached out of its PP constituency, and had traction among people not previously involved in party politics, such as
Virgil Molin, a journalist and president of the
Craiova
Craiova (, also , ), is Romania's 6th Cities in Romania, largest city and capital of Dolj County, and situated near the east bank of the river Jiu River, Jiu in central Oltenia. It is a longstanding political center, and is located at approximatel ...
chamber of labor. Also joining the PNA were the literary critic
Tudor Vianu
Tudor Vianu (; January 8, 1898 – May 21, 1964) was a Romanian literary criticism, literary critic, art critic, poet, philosopher, academic, and translator. He had a major role on the reception and development of Modernism in Literature of Roma ...
Lucian Boia
Lucian Boia (born 1 February 1944 in Bucharest) is a Romanian historian. He is mostly known for his debunking of historical myths about Romania, for purging mainstream Romanian history from the deformations due to ideological propaganda. I.e. as ...
, ''Capcanele istoriei. Elita intelectuală românească între 1930 și 1950'', pp. 102–103. Bucharest: Humanitas
''Humanitas'' is a Latin noun meaning human nature, civilization, and kindness. It has uses in the Enlightenment, which are discussed below.
Classical origins of term
The Latin word ''humanitas'' corresponded to the Greek concepts of '' philanthr ...
, 2012. and his brother, the essayist Alexandru Vianu, alongside poet
Sandu Tudor
Sandu Tudor (; born Alexandru Al. Teodorescu, known in church records as Brother Agathon, later Daniil Teodorescu, Daniil Sandu Tudor, Daniil de la Rarău; December 22 or December 24, 1896 – November 17, 1962) was a Romanian poet, journalist, th ...
and philosopher
Alexandru Mironescu Alexandru Mironescu (July 23, 1903–January 20, 1973) was a Romanian prose writer.
Born in Tecuci, his parents were Victor Mironescu and his wife Elena. After attending Dimitrie Cantemir High School in Bucharest, he obtained degrees in chemis ...
.
[Emilia Motoranu, "Un scriitor uitat: Alexandru Vianu", in ''Sud. Revistă Editată de Asociația pentru Cultură și Tradiție Istorică Bolintineanu'', Issues 1–2/2016, p. 5] ''
Țara Noastră'', put out from Transylvania by
Ion Gorun
Ion Gorun (pen name of Alexandru I. Hodoș; December 30, 1863–March 30, 1928) was an Imperial Austrian-born Romanian prose writer, poet and translator.
Biography
Born in Roșia, Sibiu County, his parents were Iosif Hodoș and his wif ...
, endured as the central party organ, with another party newspaper of the same name appearing at
Buzău
The city of Buzău (formerly spelled ''Buzeu'' or ''Buzĕu''; ) is the county seat of Buzău County, Romania, in the historical region of Muntenia. It lies near the right bank of the Buzău River, between the south-eastern curvature of the Car ...
.
[Minuț (1999), p. 274] While establishing itself regionally, Goga's party took over or established several regional newspapers: ''Cuvântul Poporului'', put out by Elie Mărgeanu of
Sibiu
Sibiu ( , , german: link=no, Hermannstadt , la, Cibinium, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Härmeschtat'', hu, Nagyszeben ) is a city in Romania, in the historical region of Transylvania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles the Ci ...
; ''Agrarul Vâlcei'', published by Dumitru Zeana in
Râmnicu Vâlcea
Râmnicu Vâlcea (also spelled ''Rîmnicu Vîlcea'' or, in the past, ''Rîmnic-Vâlcea'', ) (population: 92,573 as per the 2011 Romanian census) is the county capital ( ro, Reședință de județ) and also the largest town of Vâlcea County, cent ...
; ''Cârma Vremii'' of
Iași
Iași ( , , ; also known by other alternative names), also referred to mostly historically as Jassy ( , ), is the second largest city in Romania and the seat of Iași County. Located in the historical region of Moldavia, it has traditionally ...
and ''Chemarea'' of
Vaslui
Vaslui (), a city in eastern Romania, is the seat of Vaslui County, in the historical region of Western Moldavia. The city administers five villages: Bahnari, Brodoc, Moara Grecilor, Rediu, and Viișoara.
History
Archaeological surveys indicate ...
; as well as two sheets in
Brăila
Brăila (, also , ) is a city in Muntenia, eastern Romania, a port on the Danube and the capital of Brăila County. The ''Sud-Est'' Regional Development Agency is located in Brăila.
According to the 2011 Romanian census there were 180,302 pe ...
and
Constanța
Constanța (, ; ; rup, Custantsa; bg, Кюстенджа, Kyustendzha, or bg, Констанца, Konstantsa, label=none; el, Κωνστάντζα, Kōnstántza, or el, Κωνστάντια, Kōnstántia, label=none; tr, Köstence), histo ...
, both named ''Brazda Nouă''.
Platform
Conservatism, radicalism, agrarianism
As Heinen notes, the PNA was one of several groups channeling popular discontent following the
Great Depression
The Great Depression (19291939) was an economic shock that impacted most countries across the world. It was a period of economic depression that became evident after a major fall in stock prices in the United States. The economic contagio ...
; it was also the most authentic, and a "remarkable force."
Historian
Stanley G. Payne describes the splinter group as authoritarian nationalist and "rightist", or "rather more overtly right radical" than
Mihail Manoilescu
Mihail Manoilescu (; December 9, 1891 – December 30, 1950) was a Romanian journalist, engineer, economist, politician and memoirist, who served as Foreign Minister of Romania during the summer of 1940. An active promoter of and contributor to f ...
's own dissident faction. The issue of its labeling has caused some disputes in the community of experts.
Nicholas Nagy-Talavera viewed Goga as a "bourgeois fascist", but his assessment was challenged by Heinen, according to whom the PNA's "radical nationalism" was "entirely devoid of that revolutionary pathos which set apart all the fascist parties." Overall, "too many PNA members were still tied to the People's Party directives in both manners and ideas of political combat."
Researcher Ion Mezarescu likewise viewed the PNA ideology as "within the coordinates of interwar bourgeois democracy". However, according to scholar
Irina Livezeanu
Irina Livezeanu (born 1952) is a Romanian-American historian. Her research interests include Eastern Europe, Eastern European Jewry, the Holocaust in Eastern Europe, and modern nationalism. Several of her publications deal with the history of Roma ...
, Goga was in the process of migrating "across the conservative-radical divide". National Peasantist
Nicolae Carandino Nicolae Carandino (19 July 1905 – 16 February 1996) was a Romanian journalist, pamphleteer, translator, dramatist, and politician.
He was born in Brăila into a family of intellectuals, the son of a Romanian mother and Greek father. After co ...
, who was a political reporter in the 1930s, describes his disappointment with witnessing Goga's transition into a "politician and by no means a statesman". According to Carandino, the PNA leader had "no politically autonomous values", and was essentially a "high-end prostitute".
While reaching out to the far-right, the PNA remained staunchly monarchist—according to Heinen, Goga was a "
national conservative
National conservatism is a nationalist variant of conservatism that concentrates on upholding national and cultural identity. National conservatives usually combine nationalism with conservative stances promoting traditional cultural values, fa ...
" among the "Carlists". The National Agrarians adopted ''Dumnezeu, Patrie, Rege'' ("God, Fatherland, King") as their slogan, a rallying cry already associated with Goga before the party's formation. The group's rejection of democracy had its roots in Goga's 1927 book, ''Mustul care fierbe'' ("The Frothing Must"), which argued that the masses needed a "moral eminence" to "inspire in them tranquility and safety." The PNA suggested modifying Romania's
Constitution of 1923, reducing
Parliament
In modern politics, and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: Representation (politics), representing the Election#Suffrage, electorate, making laws, and overseeing ...
to an "orderly and useful instrument", reformed around a
corporative representation. Simultaneously, the party campaigned for widening the suffrage, primarily by
allowing women to vote; to this end, the wives of PNA eminences created their own "women circles", which also took up the task of promoting
social hygiene
The social hygiene movement was an attempt by Progressive era reformers to control venereal disease, regulate prostitution and vice, and disseminate sexual education through the use of scientific research methods and modern media techniques. Socia ...
in rural areas.
In time, the PNA adopted another slogan: ''Rod mult, bun și cu preț'' ("More, better, valuable bearings"). This notion reflected its commitment to an agrarian economy, which Goga identified as the core of Romania's potential for export, in tandem with the
Romanianization
Romanianization is the series of policies aimed toward ethnic assimilation implemented by the Romanian authorities during the 20th and 21st century. The most noteworthy policies were those aimed at the Hungarian minority in Romania, Jews and as ...
of labor and capital.
Al. Gherghel Al. Gherghel (; April 27, 1879 — December 20, 1951) was a Romanian Symbolist poet.
Born in Pitești into a family of intellectuals, his father Ion was a German teacher in Câmpulung. He spent his childhood and adolescence in the latter town, ...
, "Octavian Goga și partidul său", in ''Farul'', Issue 18/1933, pp. 1–2 Its leadership promised to suspend payments on Romania's
external debt
A country's gross external debt (or foreign debt) is the liabilities that are owed to nonresidents by residents. The debtors can be governments, corporations or citizens. External debt may be denominated in domestic or foreign currency. It incl ...
; in exchange, it promised a tax reform that would benefit both local and foreign investors. Goga's agrarianism rested on the notion that peasants were a unifying factor, their shared culture transcending regional divisions. In 1935, Valjean similarly proclaimed that all classes were "subordinate to the plowmen".
[Dumitru Botar, "Din presa romanațeană de altădată (III)", in ''Memoria Oltului și Romanaților'', Issue 4/2017, p. 32] His PNA intended to make the smallholders key players in Romania's economy, encouraging
credit union
A credit union, a type of financial institution similar to a commercial bank, is a member-owned nonprofit organization, nonprofit financial cooperative. Credit unions generally provide services to members similar to retail banks, including depo ...
s and land purchase, as well as describing a future in which labor and its product would be more expensive; it also promised to enact agricultural
dirigisme
Dirigisme or dirigism () is an economic doctrine in which the state plays a strong directive (policies) role contrary to a merely regulatory interventionist role over a market economy. As an economic doctrine, dirigisme is the opposite of ''lai ...
, with tools such as a state plan for developing agriculture,
pomology
Pomology (from Latin , “fruit,” + ) is a branch of botany that studies fruit and its cultivation. The term fruticulture—introduced from Romance languages (all of whose incarnations of the term descend from Latin and )—is also used.
Pomol ...
,
sericulture
Sericulture, or silk farming, is the cultivation of silkworms to produce silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, ''Bombyx mori'' (the caterpillar of the domestic silkmoth) is the most widely used and intensively studie ...
, and handicrafts.
In parallel, Goga's intellectual debt to corporatism took form as promises to enact
class collaboration
Class collaboration is a principle of social organization based upon the belief that the division of society into a hierarchy of social classes is a positive and essential aspect of civilization.
Fascist support
Class collaboration is one of the ...
, or "harmonious solidarity between workers, peasants and all other productive forces". Historian Oltea Rășcanu Gramaticu, who focused on the politics of
Tutova County
Tutova County is one of the historic counties of Moldavia, Romania with the city of Bârlad as capital.
Geography
Tutova County covered 2,498 km2 and was located in the central-eastern part of Greater Romania, in the south-eastern part of Mol ...
, noted that the PNA enjoyed "some popularity", due to its "radical solutions for revitalizing small plots owned by the peasants". However, as argued by researchers Cornel Popescu and George Daniel Ungureanu, the PNA was agrarian "in name", and had a mostly right-wing program.
While seeking ways to improve the peasants' economic status, the party pledged itself to administrative reform and a full clampdown on corruption.
By October 1932, its deputies were engaged in a public confrontation with the PNȚ cabinet, headed by
Alexandru Vaida-Voevod
Alexandru Vaida-Voevod or Vaida-Voievod (27 February 1872 – 19 March 1950) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian politician who was a supporter and promoter of the Union of Transylvania with Romania, union of Transylvania (before 1920 part of ...
, over the issue of
debt relief Debt relief or debt cancellation is the partial or total forgiveness of debt, or the slowing or stopping of debt growth, owed by individuals, corporations, or nations.
From antiquity through the 19th century, it refers to domestic debts, in particu ...
. Goga wanted most of the small- and mid-sized plots to be cleared of debt with state support, and wanted to extend that principle to public debt held by urban localities. He also wanted
communes
An intentional community is a voluntary residential community which is designed to have a high degree of social cohesion and teamwork from the start. The members of an intentional community typically hold a common social, political, relig ...
to exercise more control over local tribunals.
[Mezarescu, p. 65] Such proposals were balanced out by the PNA's adversity toward decentralizing projects, in which Goga saw evidence of pushes for Transylvanian autonomism, as endorsed by the PNȚ.
[Minuț (2001), p. 429] The PNA understood administrative reform to be necessary, but would only commit itself to projects which would befit "national unity as an instinct".
The PNA on minorities
The party's stances evidenced Goga's conversion to antisemitism, which he had not explicitly embraced before 1932; within that framework, Goga was arguing that Jews were endorsing "
Magyarization
Magyarization ( , also ''Hungarization'', ''Hungarianization''; hu, magyarosítás), after "Magyar"—the Hungarian autonym—was an assimilation or acculturation process by which non-Hungarian nationals living in Austro-Hungarian Transleithan ...
" in Transylvania.
William I. Brustein
William I. Brustein is Professor Emeritus at West Virginia University, having recently stepped down as Vice President for Global Strategies and International Affairs and Eberly Family Distinguished Professor of History. Previously, he was the Vic ...
, ''Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust'', p. 157. Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press
Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by Henry VIII of England, King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press
A university press is an academic publishing hou ...
, 2003. However, already in the 1910s Goga was modelling himself on
Karl Lueger
Karl Lueger (; 24 October 1844 – 10 March 1910) was an Austrian politician, mayor of Vienna, and leader and founder of the Austrian Christian Social Party. He is credited with the transformation of the city of Vienna into a modern city. The pop ...
,
Cisleithania
Cisleithania, also ''Zisleithanien'' sl, Cislajtanija hu, Ciszlajtánia cs, Předlitavsko sk, Predlitavsko pl, Przedlitawia sh-Cyrl-Latn, Цислајтанија, Cislajtanija ro, Cisleithania uk, Цислейтанія, Tsysleitaniia it, Cislei ...
's antisemitic doctrinaire. In the 1920s, his ''Țara Noastră'' had expressed sympathy with the growing antisemitic trend among students, and indirectly with the
Iron Guard
The Iron Guard ( ro, Garda de Fier) was a Romanian militant revolutionary fascist movement and political party founded in 1927 by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu as the Legion of the Archangel Michael () or the Legionnaire Movement (). It was strongly ...
. In ''Mustul care fierbe'', Goga further hinted that Jews were to blame for the ills of modernity. He voiced alarm about
Greater Romania
The term Greater Romania ( ro, România Mare) usually refers to the borders of the Kingdom of Romania in the interwar period, achieved after the Great Union. It also refers to a pan-nationalist idea.
As a concept, its main goal is the creation ...
being invaded by "parasites" and "guess... who". However, he framed his support for the students in terms of social rejuvenation, and noted that violent antisemitism was perhaps an "incorrect slogan". During the
elections of 1926, Goga, as
Minister of the Interior
An interior minister (sometimes called a minister of internal affairs or minister of home affairs) is a cabinet official position that is responsible for internal affairs, such as public security, civil registration and identification, emergency ...
, had obtained favors for
A. C. Cuza
Alexandru C. Cuza (8 November 1857 – 3 November 1947), also known as A. C. Cuza, was a Romanian far-right politician and economist.
Early life
Born in Iași, Cuza attended secondary school in his native city and in Dresden, Saxony, Germany, ...
's
National-Christian Defense League
The National-Christian Defense League ( ro, Liga Apărării Național Creștine, LANC) was a Far-right politics, far-right political party of Romania formed by A. C. Cuza.
Origins
The LANC had its roots in the National Christian Union, formed in ...
(LANC), which was virulently antisemitic. However, his assistance proved a moderating influence, obliging Cuza to purge the LANC of radicals such as
Ion Zelea Codreanu,
Valer Pop, and
Traian Brăileanu.
While commenting on Goga's political duplicity, Carandino agued that he "was just as ready to serve the monarchy, the
ationalLiberals,
he Jewish businessmanAristide Blank
Aristide or Aristid Blank, also spelled Blanc or Blanck (January 1, 1883 – January 1, 1960), was a Romanian financier, economist, arts patron and playwright. His father, Mauriciu Blank, an assimilated and naturalized Romanian Jew, was manager ...
, or anyone else who would have hired him." In 1931, Goga was still reassuring his readers that he was not an antisemite. According to Minuț, his subsequent drift was a consequence of his taking money from antisemitic industrialists, and in particular from
Ion Gigurtu
Ion Gigurtu (; 24 June 1886 – 24 November 1959) was a far-right Romanian politician, Land Forces officer, engineer and industrialist who served a brief term as Prime Minister from 4 July to 4 September 1940, under the personal regime of King Car ...
. Xenophobic radicalization was additionally enhanced by the PNA–PNȚ conflict: Goga castigated his adversaries for their alleged
grafting
Grafting or graftage is a horticultural technique whereby tissues of plants are joined so as to continue their growth together. The upper part of the combined plant is called the scion () while the lower part is called the rootstock. The succ ...
during the "
Škoda Affair", which had profited the Polish industrialist
Bruno Seletzky. However, Minuț notes, Goga was "contradictory" even at this late stage, sometimes stating his belief in the minorities' integration, but often decrying their participation in public life.
The PNA nevertheless had various Jewish affiliates, including the Vianus, who probably believed that membership would complement their
assimilation,
and journalist
Henric Streitman
Henric Ștefan Streitman (first name also Henric Șt., Enric, Henri or Henry, last name also Streitmann, Streittman, Ștraitman; 1873 – ''circa'' March 30, 1950) was a Romanian journalist, translator and political figure, who traversed the polit ...
, who was primarily motivated by anticommunism.
[ G. Brătescu]
"Uniunea Ziariștilor Profesioniști, 1919 – 2009. Compendiu aniversar"
in ''Mesagerul de Bistrița-Năsăud'', December 11, 2009 While Tudor Vianu co-chaired the PNA Studies Circle, alongside Petrovici, Streitman was appointed on the PNA's Executive Committee.
They were joined by Jewish philosopher
Iosif Brucăr, but only briefly. As Brucăr explained years later, he had resigned upon learning what the party actually stood for. Another leading party figure was Jewish businessman Leon Preiss, who chaired the PNA section in Bucharest's
Black Sector and, in 1932, still referred to Goga as a friend of the Jews.
The party remained open to other ethnic minorities: its branch in
Durostor County
Durostor County was a county (''județ'') of the Kingdom of Romania, in Southern Dobruja, with the seat at Silistra.
The county was located in the south-eastern part of Greater Romania, in the southern Dobrogea region, known as Cadrilater. Current ...
, organized by M. Magiari and
Pericle Papahagi Pericle Papahagi (1872 – January 20, 1943) was an Aromanian literary historian and folklorist.
He was born into an Aromanian family in Avdella (), a village that formed part of the Ottoman Empire's Manastir Vilayet and is now in Greece. Aft ...
, counted
Turks
Turk or Turks may refer to:
Communities and ethnic groups
* Turkic peoples, a collection of ethnic groups who speak Turkic languages
* Turkish people, or the Turks, a Turkic ethnic group and nation
* Turkish citizen, a citizen of the Republic o ...
,
Bulgarians
Bulgarians ( bg, българи, Bǎlgari, ) are a nation and South Slavic ethnic group native to Bulgaria and the rest of Southeast Europe.
Etymology
Bulgarians derive their ethnonym from the Bulgars. Their name is not completely understo ...
and
Aromanians
The Aromanians ( rup, Armãnji, Rrãmãnji) are an Ethnic groups in Europe, ethnic group native to the southern Balkans who speak Aromanian language, Aromanian, an Eastern Romance language. They traditionally live in central and southern Alba ...
among its members.
PNA sections in
Bukovina
Bukovinagerman: Bukowina or ; hu, Bukovina; pl, Bukowina; ro, Bucovina; uk, Буковина, ; see also other languages. is a historical region, variously described as part of either Central or Eastern Europe (or both).Klaus Peter BergerT ...
were led by Petro Ivanciuc, Andriv Zemliuc and Necolai Palli, who were probably
Ukrainian
Ukrainian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Ukraine
* Something relating to Ukrainians, an East Slavic people from Eastern Europe
* Something relating to demographics of Ukraine in terms of demography and population of Ukraine
* So ...
. Goga also had contacts within the
Romani community
The Romani (also spelled Romany or Rromani , ), colloquially known as the Roma, are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group, traditionally nomadic itinerants. They live in Europe and Anatolia, and have diaspora populations located worldwide, with si ...
, including activist
Gheorghe A. Lăzăreanu-Lăzurică
Gheorghe A. Lăzăreanu-Lăzurică or George Lăzurică, also known as Lăzărescu-Lăzurică or Lăzărică (1892 – ?), was a leader of the Romani (Gypsy) community in Romania, also remembered for his support of Romania's interwar far-right. O ...
, who acted as an electoral agent for both the PNA and the Iron Guard. PNA politico Rădulescu was allegedly of Romani origin, and was attending Romani congresses in a private capacity. Such issues highlighted the schism between the two Romani organizations, respectively led by Lăzăreanu and
Calinic Șerboianu. At the time, Șerboianu accused his rival of being Goga's puppet.
Electioneering and Nazi influence
According to Heinen, the PNA can be grouped into an "antisemitic
ndmarkedly right-wing" segment, alongside the LANC and the
Citizen Bloc—but distinct from the more radical Iron Guard. The three parties had 9% of the vote in the
July 1932 election, with the PNA itself at 3.64% (or 4% and 108,857 ballots, in Minuț's count).
The leading candidates included Dragomir, Ghițescu, Gorun, Ioanid, Lupaș, Nemoianu, Scridon, Valjean,
Sergiu Niță
Sergiu T. Niță (1883 in Peresecina – 3 March 1940 in Bucharest) was a politician and lawyer from Romania. He served as Minister for Bessarabia (1920–1921, 1926–1927) in the Averescu cabinets.
Biography
Sergiu Niță was born on March ...
, I. C. Atanasiu, Dumitru Topciu, as well as the party leader and his brother
Eugen Goga. Eight were elected, including Octavian Goga for
Mureș, Ioanid for Mehedinți, Ghițescu for
Teleorman, Pavel Cuciujna for
Orhei
Orhei (; Yiddish ''Uriv'' – אוריװ), also formerly known as Orgeev (russian: Орге́ев), is a city, municipality and the administrative centre of Orhei District in the Moldova, Republic of Moldova, with a population of 21,065. Orhei ...
, and Valjean for
Romanați; Scridon also entered the Assembly by taking the second seat in
Năsăud County
Năsăud County is one of the historic counties of Transylvania, Romania. The county seat was Bistrița.
Geography
Năsăud County was located in the north-central part of Greater Romania, in the north of Transylvania, covering . Currently, the te ...
, with 2,069 votes. According to Netea's first-hand account, Goga's victory was hard-won: peasants rounded up to mock him during his campaign tour at
Deda.
Speaking for his party, Ghițescu accused Premier Vaida of having falsified the vote. The PNA chose not to compete in the by-elections of September, announcing that it was too caught up organizing its base. Vaida's paper, ''
Gazeta Transilvaniei
''Gazeta de Transilvania'' was the first Romanian-language newspaper to be published in Transylvania. It was founded by George Bariț in 1838 in Brașov. It played a very important role in the awakening of the Romanian national conscience in Trans ...
'', ridiculed this decision, noting that Goga had been "shamed" and was not risking further embarrassment. The National Agrianists had by then cultivated a relationship with two other splinter groups of the classical parties: the
Georgist Liberal Party and the
Lupist Peasantists. It developed into a working alliance.
[Minuț (2001), p. 430] Preparing for a foreseeable PNȚ downfall, the PNA held large-scale rallies announcing its preparedness for government. In April, at
Caracal
The caracal (''Caracal caracal'') () is a medium-sized wild cat native to Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and arid areas of Pakistan and northwestern India. It is characterised by a robust build, long legs, a short face, long tufted e ...
, Goga hinted that Carol was seriously considering forming a PNA cabinet. On June 26, addressing a crowd gathered outside
Târgoviște
Târgoviște (, alternatively spelled ''Tîrgoviște''; german: Tergowisch) is a city and county seat in Dâmbovița County, Romania. It is situated north-west of Bucharest, on the right bank of the Ialomița River.
Târgoviște was one of the ...
, he announced his contempt for the PNȚ, describing its leader,
Iuliu Maniu
Iuliu Maniu (; 8 January 1873 – 5 February 1953) was an Austro-Hungarian-born lawyer and Romanian politician. He was a leader of the National Party of Transylvania and Banat before and after World War I, playing an important role in the Un ...
, as "responsible for all misfortunes that have fallen upon this country." In December 1933, Carol asked Vaida to step down, and the National Liberals took over, with
Ion G. Duca
Ion Gheorghe Duca (; 20 December 1879 – 29 December 1933) was Romanian politician and the Prime Minister of Romania from 14 November to 29 December 1933, when he was assassinated for his efforts to suppress the fascist Iron Guard movement.
...
at the helm. Duca then approached the PNA leadership to establish a coalition, conditioned on Goga toning down his nationalism; Goga refused. The PNA leader was also dissatisfied with the details of the offer, and in particular with Duca's history as an anti-Carlist. Discarding such mainstream arrangements, the PNA issued press releases referring to the Duca team as a clientele of the Jewry.
Before the
December 1933 election in Romania,
Germany had come under Nazi control. The PNA found itself intensely courted by the new regime, which pursued Eastern European alliances. Goga was a regular guest at the German Legation, and accepted offers for collaboration; however, he also insisted that
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...
vouch for Greater Romania's borders. During those months, the PNA, represented by Valjean, joined the "Antirevisionist League", a civic movement for the
Little Entente
The Little Entente was an alliance formed in 1920 and 1921 by Czechoslovakia, Romania and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 Yugoslavia) with the purpose of common defense against Hungarian revanchism and the prospect of a Hab ...
and against
Hungarian irredentism
Hungarian irredentism or Greater Hungary ( hu, Nagy-Magyarország) are irredentist political ideas concerning redemption of territories of the historical Kingdom of Hungary. Targeting at least to regain control over Hungarian-populated areas in H ...
. Formally supportive of the
League of Nations
The League of Nations (french: link=no, Société des Nations ) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ...
and its system of peace treaties, the PNA made a slow move into Germany's orbit. In its electoral program of 1933, the party removed all reference to the toleration of national minorities,
and proposed measures to supervise them, and in particular their "ideological imports". Nonetheless, in March 1933, the Nazi agent of influence, Friedrich Weber, described Goga as a "man of the future", one who could bring Hitler's ideology to Romania.
A far-right politico,
Nae Ionescu
Nae Ionescu (, born Nicolae C. Ionescu; – 15 March 1940) was a Romanian philosopher, logician, mathematician, professor, and journalist. Near the end of his career, he became known for his antisemitism and devotion to far right politics, in th ...
, allegedly regarded Goga as a potential
Prime Minister
A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister is not ...
of an Iron Guard cabinet. According to this version, Goga was tasked with enacting the "Hitlerian" program, including antisemitism and
anti-Masonry
Anti-Masonry (alternatively called anti-Freemasonry) is "avowed opposition to Freemasonry",''Oxford English Dictionary'' (1979 ed.), p. 369. which has led to multiple forms of religious discrimination, violent persecution, and suppression in so ...
. This pronouncement anticipated Goga's own departure from the
Romanian Freemasonry, of which he was still a member in summer 1933. In September, Goga and Colonel
Ștefan Tătărescu of the
Romanian National Socialist Party (PNSR) were both received by Hitler in
Berlin
Berlin ( , ) is the capital and largest city of Germany by both area and population. Its 3.7 million inhabitants make it the European Union's most populous city, according to population within city limits. One of Germany's sixteen constitue ...
. In November, while campaigning in
Bessarabia
Bessarabia (; Gagauz: ''Besarabiya''; Romanian: ''Basarabia''; Ukrainian: ''Бессара́бія'') is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. About two thirds of Be ...
, the Colonel was seized by the local police; Consequently, he and Cicerone Manole, who had led the Bukovina Nazi cell, were put up as PNA candidates for the Assembly—Tătărescu headed the list for
Cahul
Cahul (; also known by other alternative names) is a city and municipality in southern Moldova. The city is the administrative center of Cahul District; it also administers one village, Cotihana. As of 2014 census, the city has had a populatio ...
, while Manole ran second to Teodor Tcaciuc in
Storojineț.
The 1932 performance was closely mirrored in this second national race, when the PNA managed 4.2%, with its family of parties again at 9%. Such results proved well below Goga's expectations, and widely acknowledged as a sign that the Romanian electorate had not been persuaded by the tenets of radical nationalism—the party leader himself noted that propaganda had been "inefficient". The PNA had nine mandates: Goga, Scridon, Ioanid and Ghițescu held on to their seats; Valjean was also elected, but for
Caraș, with Petrovici taking his post in Romanați.
["Tablou indicând rezultatele", ''passim''; Minuț (2001), pp. 427–428] Topciu also won a seat, at
Tighina
Bender (, Moldovan Cyrillic: Бендер) or Bendery (russian: Бендеры, , uk, Бендери), also known as Tighina ( ro, Tighina), is a city within the internationally recognized borders of Moldova under ''de facto'' control of the un ...
, while physician
Gheorghe Banu Gheorghe Banu (23 March 1889—15 August 1957) was a Romanian hygienist and politician who served as Health Minister in the Octavian Goga government from 12 December 1937 to 10 February 1938. He was a leading promoter of eugenics among academics ...
was elected at
Ialomița. Another new recruit,
Vasile Goldiș
Vasile Goldiș (12 November 1862 – 10 February 1934) was a Romanian politician, social theorist, and member of the Romanian Academy.
Early life
He was born on 12 November 1862 in his grandfather's (Teodor Goldiș) house in the village of M ...
, failed to win the race for
Arad, as did Ion Demetrescu-Agraru in
Baia
Baia (german: Baja, Stadt Molde, or Moldenmarkt; hu, Moldvabánya; lat, Civitas Moldaviae) is a commune in Suceava County, in the historical region of Western Moldavia, northeastern Romania with a population of 6,793 (2002 census).[Sibiu
Sibiu ( , , german: link=no, Hermannstadt , la, Cibinium, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Härmeschtat'', hu, Nagyszeben ) is a city in Romania, in the historical region of Transylvania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles the Ci ...]
and Nemoianu at
Severin.
Overall, the PNA had some 122,000 votes, which was enough to earn it an extra seat.
Merger and splinters
As historian Francisco Veiga notes, visits to Germany and the
Kingdom of Italy
The Kingdom of Italy ( it, Regno d'Italia) was a state that existed from 1861, when Victor Emmanuel II of Kingdom of Sardinia, Sardinia was proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, proclaimed King of Italy, until 1946, when civil discontent led to ...
made Goga "enthusiastic" and "completed
ispolitical evolution". It was at this stage that Goga began openly praising
Italian fascism as the paragon of the "new psychology", while using its administrative laws as a template for reforms in Romania. According to Mezarescu, this period also saw him taking a stand against
Marxism
Marxism is a Left-wing politics, left-wing to Far-left politics, far-left method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a Materialism, materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand S ...
, which he opposed to "Romanianism". According to Mezarescu, this had "no logical justification", given that Goga addressed his critique to a "healthy
ndmodern" capitalist society, in which Marxist postulates were "virtually unknown".
The PNA and the LANC both repeatedly tried, but failed, to persuade the Iron Guard into a merger. King Carol also proposed that the Guard be co-opted into a government coalition of "national forces", centered on the PP and the PNA. This tendency was curbed by Premier Duca, who outlawed the Guard. Goga and the PNA reacted with public protests, viewing the measure as unwarranted. In part, this was because the PNA leadership sensed that Duca would next target them. Reportedly, after Duca's assassination by Guardist ''
Nicadori
During the 1930s, three notable death squads emerged from Romania's Iron Guard: the ''Nicadori'', the ''Decemviri'' and the ''Răzbunători''. Motivated by a combination of fascist political ideology and religious-nationalist mysticism, they carri ...
'', Goga sent boots as gifts to all those convicted for the murder. PNA deputies publicly called for an end to the anti-Guard wave of arrests, suggesting that it was unjustified.
By 1934, Goga was exchanging letters with the Guard's leader,
Corneliu Zelea Codreanu
Corneliu Zelea Codreanu (; born Corneliu Codreanu, according to his birth certificate; 13 September 1899 – 30 November 1938) was a Romanian politician of the far right, the founder and charismatic leader of the Iron Guard or ''The Legion ...
, who promised him backing for a PNA government.
Nevertheless, according to writer
Al. Gherghel Al. Gherghel (; April 27, 1879 — December 20, 1951) was a Romanian Symbolist poet.
Born in Pitești into a family of intellectuals, his father Ion was a German teacher in Câmpulung. He spent his childhood and adolescence in the latter town, ...
, in August 1933 the PNA still viewed itself as standing against "right- and left-wing extremes", its platform one of "moderate progress".
Over the following moths, Goga tried to fuse into his party the Lupist and
Radical Peasantists, as well as the
Agrarian League. In mid 1935, Goga also approached Vaida's new far-right party, called
Romanian Front
The Romanian Front ( ro, Frontul Românesc, FR) was a moderate fascist party created in Romania in 1935. Led by former Prime Minister Alexandru Vaida-Voevod, it originated as a right-wing splinter group from the mainstream National Peasants' Part ...
(FR), with offers of alliance or merger. Reportedly, Goga offered to fuse the PNA group into the FR, asking that he be assigned vice-chairmanship; Vaida refused, since he had promised that role to a long-time collaborator of his,
Aurel Vlad.
Goga's Nazi contacts also networked for the creation of a Romanian fascist party bringing together the PNA, the LANC, and the Georgists, but the project failed to materialize in this form. It was then kept alive by
Alfred Rosenberg
Alfred Ernst Rosenberg ( – 16 October 1946) was a Baltic German Nazi theorist and ideologue. Rosenberg was first introduced to Adolf Hitler by Dietrich Eckart and he held several important posts in the Nazi government. He was the head of ...
, who believed in the necessity of consolidating Romania's antisemitic camp. A LANC–PNA fusion was nonetheless also favored by Carol, who kept a close watch on Goga through
Ion Sân-Giorgiu; both the king and his spy saw the resulting party as an instrument for the king's own executive powers. Carol's agent at
Internal Affairs,
Victor Iamandi
Victor Iamandi (February 15, 1891 – 26 November 1940) was a Romanian politician who served as the Romanian Minister of Justice in 1938–1939, in several successive cabinets.
He was born in Hodora, Iași County, the son of Ion and Lucreția Ia ...
, distributed boons to the PNA and the LANC, helping their leaders to prefer Carol over Codreanu.
Nichifor Crainic
Nichifor Crainic (; pseudonym of Ion Dobre ; 22 December 1889, Bulbucata, Giurgiu County – 20 August 1972, Mogoșoaia) was a Romanian writer, editor, philosopher, poet and theology, theologian famed for his traditionalist activities. Crai ...
, who oversaw the LANC's paramilitary youth (or ''
Lăncieri The ''Lăncieri'' ("Lancers", ) were a Romanian fascist paramilitary movement initially attached to the National-Christian Defense League, and following the merger on 16 July 1935 of the NCDL and the National Agrarian Party to form the National C ...
''), also boasted an important role in negotiating the Goga–Cuza rapprochement. The final merger was also partly motivated by Cuza's political calculations, since the LANC had only taken 4.5% of the vote in 1933.
The National Agrarianists held their second and final congress on April 7, 1935, again at Rio Cinema.
On July 14, the PNA merged with the LANC to form the
National Christian Party
The National Christian Party ( ro, Partidul Național Creștin) was a radical-right authoritarian and strongly antisemitic political party in Romania active between 1935 and 1938. It was formed by a merger of Octavian Goga's National Agrarian Part ...
, a hard-line antisemitic group. It used as its most popular symbol the LANC swastika, which Goga himself acknowledged as standing for the "
Aryan race
The Aryan race is an obsolete historical race concept that emerged in the late-19th century to describe people of Proto-Indo-European heritage as a racial grouping. The terminology derives from the historical usage of Aryan, used by modern I ...
"; according to Mezarescu, its adoption showed a direct link with Nazism, despite claims that it had evolved from old
Dacian symbolism. The new party had a shared presidency, with Cuza and Goga as co-chairs. It sought to challenge the Iron Guard whilst remaining close to more mainstream conservative forces.
Later echoes
As noted by historian Lucian T. Butaru, Goga proved a worthy replacement for Cuza's first associate,
Nicolae Paulescu
Nicolae Constantin Paulescu (; 30 October 1869 (O.S.) – 17 July 1931) was a Romanian physiologist, professor of medicine, and politician, most famous for his work on diabetes, including patenting ''pancreine'' (a pancreatic extract containing ...
, who had died after disease in 1931. Nevertheless, the new party faced immediate difficulties. A far-left antifascist,
Scarlat Callimachi
Scarlat Callimachi or Calimachi (; nicknamed ''Prinţul Roşu'', "the Red
Prince"; September 20, 1896 – June 2, 1975) was a Romanian journalist, essayist, futurist poet, trade unionist, and communist activist, a member of the Callimachi fa ...
, noted in September 1935 that the PNC was made up from regional chapters that had no common ideological ground, the entire enterprise having been engineered by Hitler. The fusion resulted in another split: after being sidelined in favor of a Goga favorite, Ion V. Emilian quit the PNC and formed his own movement, called "Fire Swastika". Valjean also opposed the merger, and made a point of not attending the PNC's constitutive congress. His own National Agrarian Party, centered on Romanați, counted among its members poet
Horia Furtună, sculptor Dumitru Pavelescu-Dimo, and businessman Sterie Ionescu (formerly of the
League Against Usury).
Valjean's party still existed during the
general election of December 1937, when it ran under a "T" logo, the old PNA symbol having been withdrawn and made unavailable for use.
The Goga group continued to have autonomous existence within the PNC, notably by serving as the more Carlist branch, and therefore more directly supported by the king. It was itself weakened by defections—described by Mezarescu as "the logical consequence" of Goga's antisemitic turn. Of the PNA moderates, Lupaș no longer joined the PNC, whereas his colleague Dragomir did. Tudor Vianu left before the unification and the adoption of full-on antisemitism,
with his brother resigning in 1935;
by contrast, Streitman remained an outside ally, serving as the PNC's electoral agent.
Goga himself became more explicitly antisemitic. Appointed Carol's Prime Minister after the 1937 election, he introduced a
set of antisemitic laws. However, he continued to view himself as a moderate, censuring PNC radicals—including
Gheorghe Cuza, who took pride in fomenting violence. Virulent antisemitism was also embraced by the Romani caucus of Craiova, whose leader, Lăzăreanu-Lăzurică, finally joined the PNC in February 1938.
Carol's eventual recall of the PNC cabinet that same month inaugurated a monarchist dictatorship: the
1938 Constitution proclaimed a corporate state, and all political parties were dissolved. However, the PNC was allowed to function on Carol's orders, with the hope that it could emerge as the country's mass party. The embittered Goga left the country and, having personally witnessed
Germany's annexation of Austria, expressed support for a direct Nazi takeover in Romania. He died suddenly in May 1938, leaving the PNC to separate into its pre-1935 formations: while Cuza opted to fully support the dictatorial project, former PNA activists grouped into a dissident, if politically insignificant, Union of National Awareness (''Uniunea Conștiinței Naționale'', UCN). In December, the
National Renaissance Front
The National Renaissance Front ( ro, Frontul Renașterii Naționale, FRN; also translated as ''Front of National Regeneration'', ''Front of National Rebirth'', ''Front of National Resurrection'', or ''Front of National Renaissance'') was a Romani ...
(FRN) was introduced as a sole legal party. Organized by
Armand Călinescu
Armand Călinescu (4 June 1893 – 21 September 1939) was a Romanian economist and politician, who served as 39th Prime Minister from March 1939 until his assassination six months later. He was a staunch opponent of the fascist Iron Guard and m ...
, formerly of the PNȚ, the FRN was implicitly hostile toward Cuza's ideology. As a preliminary step, it recruited heavily among UCN representatives.
[Mezarescu, pp. 316–317]
Electoral history
Legislative elections
See also
*
:National Agrarian Party politicians
Notes
References
{{Historical Romanian political parties
Agrarian parties in Romania
Defunct agrarian political parties
National conservative parties
Corporatism
Conservative parties in Romania
Nationalist parties in Romania
Romanian nationalist parties
Monarchist parties in Romania
Antisemitism in Romania
Anti-communist parties
Defunct political parties in Romania
1932 establishments in Romania
1935 disestablishments in Romania
Political parties established in 1932
Political parties disestablished in 1935