![Detonationdiamond](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Detonationdiamond.jpg)
Nanodiamonds, or diamond nanoparticles, are
diamond
Diamond is a Allotropes of carbon, solid form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal structure called diamond cubic. Another solid form of carbon known as graphite is the Chemical stability, chemically stable form of car ...
s with a size below 100
nanometers
330px, Different lengths as in respect to the molecular scale.
The nanometre (international spelling as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures; SI symbol: nm) or nanometer (American and British English spelling differences#-re ...
.
They can be produced by
impact event
An impact event is a collision between astronomical objects causing measurable effects. Impact events have physical consequences and have been found to regularly occur in planetary systems, though the most frequent involve asteroids, comets or me ...
s such as an explosion or meteoritic impacts. Because of their inexpensive, large-scale synthesis, potential for
surface functionalization, and high
biocompatibility
Biocompatibility is related to the behavior of biomaterials in various contexts. The term refers to the ability of a material to perform with an appropriate host response in a specific situation. The ambiguity of the term reflects the ongoing de ...
, nanodiamonds are widely investigated as a potential material in biological and electronic applications and
quantum engineering Quantum engineering is the development of technology that capitalizes on the laws of quantum mechanics. Quantum engineering uses quantum mechanics as a toolbox for the development of quantum technologies, such as quantum sensors or quantum computer ...
.
History
In 1963, Soviet scientists at the All-Union Research Institute of Technical Physics noticed that nanodiamonds were created by
nuclear explosions
A nuclear explosion is an explosion that occurs as a result of the rapid release of energy from a high-speed nuclear reaction. The driving reaction may be nuclear fission or nuclear fusion or a multi-stage cascading combination of the two, tho ...
that used carbon-based trigger explosives.
Structure and composition
There are three main aspects in the structure of diamond nanoparticle
A nanoparticle or ultrafine particle is usually defined as a particle of matter that is between 1 and 100 nanometres (nm) in diameter. The term is sometimes used for larger particles, up to 500 nm, or fibers and tubes that are less than 1 ...
s to be considered: the overall shape, the core, and the surface. Through multiple diffraction experiments, it has been determined that the overall shape of diamond nanoparticles is either spherical or elliptical. At the core of diamond nanoparticles lies a diamond cage, which is composed mainly of carbons. While the core closely resemble the structure of a diamond, the surface of diamond nanoparticles actually resemble the structure of graphite. A recent study shows that the surface consists mainly of carbons, with high amounts of phenols, pyrones, and sulfonic acid, as well as carboxylic acid groups, hydroxyl groups, and epoxide groups, though in lesser amounts. Occasionally, defects such as nitrogen-vacancy centers can be found in the structure of diamond nanoparticles. 15N NMR research confirms presence of such defects. A recent study shows that the frequency of nitrogen-vacancy centers decreases with the size of diamond nanoparticles.
Production methods
Other than explosions, methods of synthesis include hydrothermal synthesis, ion bombardment, laser bombardment, microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition techniques, ultrasound synthesis, and electrochemical synthesis. In addition, the decomposition of graphitic C3N4 under high pressure and high temperature yields large quantities of high purity diamond nanoparticles. However, detonation synthesis of nanodiamonds has become the industry standard in the commercial production of nanodiamonds: the most commonly utilized explosives being mixtures of trinitrotoluene and hexogen or octogen. Detonation is often performed in a sealed, oxygen-free, stainless steel chamber and yields a mixture of nanodiamonds averaging 5 nm and other graphitic compounds. In detonation synthesis, nanodiamonds form under pressures greater than 15 GPa and temperatures greater than 3000K in the absence of oxygen to prevent the oxidation of diamond nanoparticles. The rapid cooling of the system increases nanodiamond yields as diamond remains the most stable phase under such conditions. Detonation synthesis utilizes gas-based and liquid-based coolants such as argon and water, water-based foams, and ice. Because detonation synthesis results in a mix of nanodiamond particles and other graphitic carbon forms, extensive cleaning methods must be employed to rid the mixture of impurities. In general, gaseous ozone treatment or solution-phase nitric acid oxidation is utilized to remove sp2 carbons and metal impurities. Nanodiamonds are also formed by dissociation of ethanol vapour. and via ultrafast laser filamentation in ethanol.
Potential applications
The N-V center defect consists of a nitrogen atom in place of a carbon atom next to a vacancy (empty space instead of an atom) within the diamond’s lattice structure.[ Recent advances (up to 2019) in the field of nanodiamonds in quantum sensing applications using NVs have been summarized in the following review.
Applying a ]microwave
Microwave is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from about one meter to one millimeter corresponding to frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz respectively. Different sources define different frequency ran ...
pulse to such a defect switches the direction of its electron spin
In atomic physics, the electron magnetic moment, or more specifically the electron magnetic dipole moment, is the magnetic moment of an electron resulting from its intrinsic properties of spin (physics), spin and electric charge. The value of the ...
. Applying a series of such pulses (Walsh decoupling sequences) causes them to act as filters. Varying the number of pulses in a series switched the spin direction a different number of times.[ They efficiently extract spectral coefficients while suppressing decoherence, thus improving sensitivity. Signal-processing techniques were used to reconstruct the entire magnetic field.][
The prototype used a 3 mm-diameter square diamond, but the technique can scale down to tens of nanometers.][
]
Micro-abrasive
Nanodiamonds share the hardness and chemical stability of visible-scale diamonds, making them candidates for applications such as polishes and engine oil additives for improved lubrication
Lubrication is the process or technique of using a lubricant to reduce friction and wear and tear in a contact between two surfaces. The study of lubrication is a discipline in the field of tribology.
Lubrication mechanisms such as fluid-lubric ...
.[
]
Medical
Diamond nanoparticles have the potential to be used in myriad biological applications and due to their unique properties such as inertness and hardness, nanodiamonds may prove to be a better alternative to the traditional nanomaterials currently utilized to carry drugs, coat implantable materials, and synthesize biosensors and biomedical robots. The low cytotoxicity of diamond nanoparticles affirms their utilization as biologically compatible materials.
In vitro studies exploring the dispersion of diamond nanoparticles in cells have revealed that most diamond nanoparticles exhibit fluorescence and are uniformly distributed. Fluorescent nanodiamond particles can be mass produced through irradiating diamond nanocrystallites with helium ions. Fluorescent nanodiamond is photostable, chemically inert, and has extended fluorescent lifetime, making it a great candidate for many biological applications. Studies have shown that small photoluminescent diamond nanoparticles that remain free in the cytosol are excellent contenders for the transport of biomolecules.
In-vitro diagnostics
Nanodiamonds containing nitrogen-vacancy defects have been used as an ultrasensitive label for in vitro diagnostics, using a microwave field to modulate emission intensity and frequency-domain analysis to separate the signal from background autofluorescence. Combined with recombinase polymerase amplification Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) is a single tube, isothermal alternative to the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). By adding a reverse transcriptase enzyme to an RPA reaction it can detect RNA as well as DNA, without the need for a separa ...
, nanodiamonds enable single-copy detection of HIV-1 RNA
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes. RNA and deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) are nucleic acids. Along with lipids, proteins, and carbohydra ...
on a low-cost lateral flow test
A lateral flow test (LFT), is an assay also known as a lateral flow device (LFD), lateral flow immunochromatographic assay, or rapid test. It is a simple device intended to detect the presence of a target substance in a liquid sample without the ...
format.
Drug delivery
Diamond nanoparticles of ~5 nm in size offer a large accessible surface and tailorable surface chemistry. They have unique optical, mechanical and thermal properties and are non-toxic. The potential of nanodiamond in drug delivery
Drug delivery refers to approaches, formulations, manufacturing techniques, storage systems, and technologies involved in transporting a pharmaceutical compound to its target site to achieve a desired therapeutic effect. Principles related to d ...
has been demonstrated, fundamental mechanisms, thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of the ...
and kinetics
Kinetics ( grc, κίνησις, , kinesis, ''movement'' or ''to move'') may refer to:
Science and medicine
* Kinetics (physics), the study of motion and its causes
** Rigid body kinetics, the study of the motion of rigid bodies
* Chemical ki ...
of drug adsorption on nanodiamond are poorly understood. Important factors include purity, surface chemistry
Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces. It includes the fiel ...
, dispersion quality, temperature and ionic composition.
Nanodiamonds (with attached molecules) are able to penetrate the blood–brain barrier
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective semipermeable membrane, semipermeable border of endothelium, endothelial cells that prevents solutes in the circulating blood from ''non-selectively'' crossing into the extracellular fluid of ...
that isolates the brain from most insults. In 2013 doxorubicin
Doxorubicin, sold under the brand name Adriamycin among others, is a chemotherapy medication used to treat cancer. This includes breast cancer, bladder cancer, Kaposi's sarcoma, lymphoma, and acute lymphocytic leukemia. It is often used togeth ...
molecules (a popular cancer-killing drug) were bonded to nanodiamond surfaces, creating the drug ND-DOX. Tests showed that tumors were unable to eject the compound, increasing the drug's ability to impact the tumor and reducing side-effects.[
Larger nanodiamonds, due to their "high uptake efficiency", have the potential to serve as cellular labels.] Studies have concluded that diamond nanoparticles are similar to carbon nanotubes and upon being treated with surfactants, the stability and biocompatibility of both carbon nanotubes and the nanodiamonds in solution greatly increase. In addition, the ability to surface functionalize nanodiamonds of small diameters provides various possibilities for diamond nanoparticles to be utilized as biolabels with potentially low cytotoxicity.
Catalysis
Decreasing particle size and functionalizing their surfaces may allow such surface-modified diamond nanoparticles to deliver proteins, which can then provide an alternative to traditional catalysts.
Skin care
Nanodiamonds are well-absorbed by human skin. They also absorb more of the ingredients in skin care products than skin itself. Thus they cause more of the ingredients to penetrate the deeper layers of the skin. Nanodiamonds also form strong bonds with water, helping to hydrate the skin.[
]
Surgery
During jaw and tooth repair operations, doctors normally use invasive surgery to stick a sponge containing bone-growth-stimulating proteins
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, respo ...
near the affected area. However, nanodiamonds bind to both bone morphogenetic protein
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are a group of growth factors also known as cytokines and as metabologens. Originally discovered by their ability to induce the formation of bone and cartilage, BMPs are now considered to constitute a group of piv ...
and fibroblast growth factor
Fibroblast growth factors (FGF) are a family of cell signalling proteins produced by macrophages; they are involved in a wide variety of processes, most notably as crucial elements for normal development in animal cells. Any irregularities in the ...
, both of which encourage bone and cartilage
Cartilage is a resilient and smooth type of connective tissue. In tetrapods, it covers and protects the ends of long bones at the joints as articular cartilage, and is a structural component of many body parts including the rib cage, the neck an ...
to rebuild and can be delivered orally.[ Nanodiamond has also been successfully incorporated into gutta percha in root canal therapy.
]
Blood testing
Defected nanodiamonds can measure the orientation of electron spins in external fields and thus measure their strength. They can electrostatically absorb ferritin
Ferritin is a universal intracellular protein that stores iron and releases it in a controlled fashion. The protein is produced by almost all living organisms, including archaea, bacteria, algae, higher plants, and animals. It is the primary ' ...
proteins on the diamond surface where their numbers can be measured directly as well as the number of iron atoms (as many as 4,500) that make up the protein.[
]
Electronics and sensors
Sensor
Naturally occurring defects in nanodiamonds called nitrogen-vacancy (N-V) centers, have been used to measure changes over time in weak magnetic fields
A magnetic field is a vector field that describes the magnetic influence on moving electric charges, electric currents, and magnetic materials. A moving charge in a magnetic field experiences a force perpendicular to its own velocity and to ...
, much like a compass does with earth's magnetic field. The sensors can be used at room temperature, and since they consist entirely of carbon, they could be injected into living cells without causing them any harm, Paola Cappellaro
Paola Cappellaro is an Italian-American engineer who is a Professor of Nuclear Science and Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Her research considers electron-spin resonance, nuclear magnetic resonance and quantum informatio ...
says.
Nanomechanical sensor and nanoelectromechanical system (NEMS)
Recent studies have shown that nanoscale diamonds can be bent to a local maximum tensile elastic strain in excess of 9%, with the corresponding maximum tensile stress reached ~100 gigapascals, making them ideal for high-performance nanomechanical sensor and NEMS applications.
Optical computing
Nanodiamonds offer an alternative to photonic metamaterials
A photonic metamaterial (PM), also known as an optical metamaterial, is a type of electromagnetic metamaterial, that interacts with light, covering terahertz (Terahertz radiation, THz), infrared (IR) or visible wavelengths. The materials employ a ...
for optical computing
Optical computing or photonic computing uses light waves produced by lasers or incoherent sources for data processing, data storage or data communication for computing. For decades, photons have shown promise to enable a higher bandwidth than the ...
. The same single-defect nanodiamonds that can be used to sense magnetic fields can also use combinations of green and infrared light
Infrared (IR), sometimes called infrared light, is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with wavelengths longer than those of visible light. It is therefore invisible to the human eye. IR is generally understood to encompass wavelengths from around ...
to enable/disrupt light transmission, allowing the construction of transistors
upright=1.4, gate (G), body (B), source (S) and drain (D) terminals. The gate is separated from the body by an insulating layer (pink).
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to Electronic amplifier, amplify or electronic switch, switch e ...
and other logic elements.[
]
Quantum computing
Nanodiamonds with NV centers may serve as a solid-state alternative to trapped ions for room-temperature quantum computing
Quantum computing is a type of computation whose operations can harness the phenomena of quantum mechanics, such as superposition, interference, and entanglement. Devices that perform quantum computations are known as quantum computers. Though ...
.[
]
Imaging
Fluorescent nanodiamonds offer a stable reference for the quality control purposes in fluorescence and multiharmonic imaging systems.
Prizes and awards
* 2012 Ig Nobel Peace Prize: The SKN Company, for converting old Russian ammunition into new diamonds
* In 2015 Amanda Barnard
Amanda Susan Barnard (born 31 December 1971) is an Australian theoretical physicist working in predicting the real world behavior of nanoparticles using analytical models and supercomputer simulations and applied machine learning. Barnard is a ...
, Science Leader of Australia's Office of the Chief Executive (OCE), The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) is an Australian Government agency responsible for scientific research.
CSIRO works with leading organisations around the world. From its headquarters in Canberra, CSIRO ...
(CSIRO), received the Theory Prize at the Foresight Institute
The Foresight Institute (Foresight) is a San Francisco-based research non-profit that promotes the development of nanotechnology and other emerging technologies, such as safe AGI, biotech and longevity.
Foresight runs four cross-disciplinary pr ...
s' Feynman Awards for nanotechnology. Using theoretical and computational methods, Amanda Barnard increased understanding of the structure and stability of carbon nanostructures and the role that shape plays in establishing properties and interactions under different conditions. The Prize announced focused on her work on diamond nanoparticles (nanodiamonds).
See also
* Aggregated diamond nanorod
Aggregated diamond nanorods, or ADNRs, are a nanocrystalline form of diamond, also known as nanodiamond or hyperdiamond.
Discovery
Nanodiamond or hyperdiamond was produced by compression of graphite in 2003 by a group of researchers in Japa ...
, a nanocrystalline form of diamond also known as nanodiamond or hyperdiamond
* Detonation nanodiamond
Detonation nanodiamond (DND), also known as ultradispersed diamond (UDD), is diamond that originates from a detonation. When an oxygen-deficient explosive mixture of TNT/ RDX is detonated in a closed chamber, diamond particles with a diameter o ...
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Diamond
Carbon nanoparticles