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Muhammad II () (also known by the epithet ''al-Faqih'', " the canon-lawyer", – 8 April 1302; reigned from 1273 until his death) was the second Nasrid ruler of the
Emirate of Granada ) , common_languages = Official language:Classical ArabicOther languages: Andalusi Arabic, Mozarabic, Berber, Ladino , capital = Granada , religion = Majority religion:Sunni IslamMinority religions:Roma ...
in
Al-Andalus Al-Andalus translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label= Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, al-Ándalus () was the Mu ...
on the
Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula (), ** * Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica'' ** ** * french: Péninsule Ibérique * mwl, Península Eibérica * eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, defi ...
, succeeding his father, Muhammad I. Already experienced in matters of state when he ascended the throne, he continued his father's policy of maintaining independence in the face of Granada's larger neighbours, the Christian kingdom of Castile and the Muslim
Marinid The Marinid Sultanate was a Berber Muslim empire from the mid-13th to the 15th century which controlled present-day Morocco and, intermittently, other parts of North Africa (Algeria and Tunisia) and of the southern Iberian Peninsula (Spain) a ...
state of Morocco, as well as an internal rebellion by his family's former allies, the Banu Ashqilula. After he took the throne, he negotiated a treaty with
Alfonso X of Castile Alfonso X (also known as the Wise, es, el Sabio; 23 November 1221 – 4 April 1284) was King of Castile, León and Galicia from 30 May 1252 until his death in 1284. During the election of 1257, a dissident faction chose him to be king of Germ ...
, in which Castile agreed to end support for the Banu Ashqilula in exchange for payments. When Castile took the money but maintained its support for the Banu Ashqilula, Muhammad turned towards
Abu Yusuf Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim al-Ansari () better known as Abu Yusuf ( ar, أبو يوسف, Abū Yūsuf) (d.798) was a student of jurist Abu Hanifa (d.767) who helped spread the influence of the Hanafi school of Islamic law through his writings and the gove ...
of the Marinids. The Marinids sent a successful expedition against Castile, but relations soured when the Marinids treated the Banu Ashqilula as Muhammad's equals. In 1279, through diplomatic manoeuvring, Muhammad regained
Málaga Málaga (, ) is a Municipalities of Spain, municipality of Spain, capital of the Province of Málaga, in the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia. With a population of 578,460 in 2020, it is the second-most populou ...
, formerly the centre of Banu Ashqilula power. In 1280, his diplomacy backfired when Granada faced simultaneous attacks from Castile, the Marinids and the Banu Ashqilula. Attacked by his more powerful neighbours, Muhammad exploited the rift between Alfonso and his son Sancho, as well as receiving help from Volunteers of the Faith, soldiers recruited from
North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
. The threat subsided when Alfonso died in 1284 and Abu Yusuf in 1286; their successors (Sancho and Abu Yaqub, respectively) were preoccupied with domestic matters. In 1288 the Banu Ashqilula emigrated to North Africa at Abu Yaqub's invitation, removing Muhammad's biggest domestic concern. In 1292, Granada helped Castile take
Tarifa Tarifa (, Arabic: طريفة) is a Spanish municipality in the province of Cádiz, Andalusia. Located at the southernmost end of the Iberian Peninsula, it is primarily known as one of the world's most popular destinations for windsports. Tarifa ...
from the Marinids on the understanding that the town would be traded to Granada, but Sancho reneged on the promise. Muhammad II then switched to the Marinid side, but a Granadan–Marinid attempt to retake Tarifa in 1294 failed. In 1295, Sancho died and was succeeded by Ferdinand IV, a minor. Granada took advantage by conducting a successful campaign against Castile, taking Quesada and
Alcaudete Alcaudete is a city located in the province of Jaén, Andalusia, Spain. As of 2018, it has a population of 10,558. It is home to a 12th-14th century Moorish castle, located on the top of the hill commanding the town. Other sights include the ''Ig ...
. Muhammad also planned a joint offensive with Aragon against Castile, but he died in 1302 before the operation took place. During his 25-year rule, Muhammad consolidated the state founded by his father and implemented administrative and military reforms. He instituted the Nasrid royal protocol and the court chancery, organized the Volunteers of the Faith—troops recruited from North Africa—and increased the importance of the office of the
vizier A vizier (; ar, وزير, wazīr; fa, وزیر, vazīr), or wazir, is a high-ranking political advisor or minister in the near east. The Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was a ...
in the government. He also directed the construction of a series of strongholds in strategic positions throughout his frontiers, which formed the backbone of Granadan border defences in the centuries to come. He expanded the
Alhambra The Alhambra (, ; ar, الْحَمْرَاء, Al-Ḥamrāʾ, , ) is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Andalusia, Spain. It is one of the most famous monuments of Islamic architecture and one of the best-preserved palaces of the ...
palace and fortress complex, and increased the emirate's trade with Christian Europe, especially with traders from
Genoa Genoa ( ; it, Genova ; lij, Zêna ). is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015, 594,733 people lived within the city's administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Ge ...
and
Pisa Pisa ( , or ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, central Italy, straddling the Arno just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for its leaning tower, the city ...
. His epithet ''al-Faqih'' reflects his high education as well as his preference for surrounding himself with scholars and poets.


Early life

Muhammad was born in 633 AH (1235 or 1236 CE) to the Nasrid clan, which originated from the town of Arjona, then in
Al-Andalus Al-Andalus translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label= Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, al-Ándalus () was the Mu ...
on the
Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula (), ** * Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica'' ** ** * french: Péninsule Ibérique * mwl, Península Eibérica * eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, defi ...
. According to the later Granadan historian and vizier
Ibn al-Khatib Lisan ad-Din Ibn al-Khatib ( ar, لسان الدين ابن الخطيب, Lisān ad-Dīn Ibn al-Khaṭīb) (Born 16 November 1313, Loja– died 1374, Fes; full name in ar, محمد بن عبد الله بن سعيد بن عبد الله بن س ...
, the clan—also known as Banu Nasr or Banu al-Ahmar—was descended from
Sa'd ibn Ubadah Saad ( ar, سعد , translit=Saʿd) is a common male Arabic given name which means 'friend / companion'. The name stems from the Arabic verb ( 'to be happy, fortunate or lucky'). ''Saad'' is the stem of variant given names Suad and Sa‘id. ...
, a prominent companion of the Islamic prophet
Muhammad Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد;  570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monot ...
, from the
Banu Khazraj The Banu Khazraj ( ar, بنو خزرج) is a large Arab tribe based in Medina. They were also in Medina during Muhammad's era. The Banu Khazraj are a South Arabian tribe that were pressured out of South Arabia in the Karib'il Watar 7th century ...
tribe in Arabia; Sa'd's descendants migrated to Spain and settled in Arjona as farmers. He had at least two older brothers, Faraj (b. 628 AH/1230 or 1231 CE) and Yusuf, and two sisters named Mu'mina and Shams. In 1232, his father Muhammad I established the independence of the town, and it later grew to a sizeable independent state in the south of Spain, centred on
Granada Granada (,, DIN: ; grc, Ἐλιβύργη, Elibýrgē; la, Illiberis or . ) is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada mountains, at the c ...
after the loss of Arjona in 1244. The
Emirate of Granada ) , common_languages = Official language:Classical ArabicOther languages: Andalusi Arabic, Mozarabic, Berber, Ladino , capital = Granada , religion = Majority religion:Sunni IslamMinority religions:Roma ...
became the last independent Muslim state in the Iberian peninsula. In 1257, after the death of Faraj, Muhammad I declared his sons Muhammad and Yusuf as his new heirs. On August of the same year, the younger Muhammad had his first son, the future Muhammad III. He had another son, Nasr, and a daughter,
Fatima Fāṭima bint Muḥammad ( ar, فَاطِمَة ٱبْنَت مُحَمَّد}, 605/15–632 CE), commonly known as Fāṭima al-Zahrāʾ (), was the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his wife Khadija. Fatima's husband was Ali, th ...
. Fatima would later marry his father's cousin
Abu Said Faraj Abu Said Faraj ibn Ismail (, 124824 April 1320) was a member of the Nasrid dynasty of Granada, who was a close advisor to Sultan Muhammad II () and Muhammad III (r. 1302–1309) and served as the governor of Málaga between 1279 and the early ...
, and their descendants would be the future rulers of Granada, replacing the direct male line after the ousting of Nasr in 1314. As heir, the future Muhammad II was involved in matters of state, including war and diplomacy. He served as
vizier A vizier (; ar, وزير, wazīr; fa, وزیر, vazīr), or wazir, is a high-ranking political advisor or minister in the near east. The Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was a ...
for some time during his father's rule. He became the sole heir after the death of Yusuf, who did not leave a descendant, during their father's lifetime. By the time of his father's death in 1273, Muhammad II was aged 38 and an experienced statesman.


Rule: 1273–1302


Background

Granada was located between two larger neighbours: the Christian kingdom of Castile to the north and the Muslim
Marinid The Marinid Sultanate was a Berber Muslim empire from the mid-13th to the 15th century which controlled present-day Morocco and, intermittently, other parts of North Africa (Algeria and Tunisia) and of the southern Iberian Peninsula (Spain) a ...
state centred in today's Morocco to the south. Castile's objectives were to keep Granada in check, prevent it from conducting raids and force it to continue paying tribute. The tribute amount was 300,000
maravedí The ''maravedí'' () or ''maravedi'' (), (from ''Almoravid dinar''), was the name of various Iberian coins of gold and then silver between the 11th and 14th centuries and the name of different Iberian accounting units between the 11th and 19th ce ...
s—about half of Granada's revenue—and represented an important source of income for Castile, though Granada often suspended payments. On the other hand, the Marinids, following in the footsteps of their
Almohad The Almohad Caliphate (; ar, خِلَافَةُ ٱلْمُوَحِّدِينَ or or from ar, ٱلْمُوَحِّدُونَ, translit=al-Muwaḥḥidūn, lit=those who profess the unity of God) was a North African Berber Muslim empire fo ...
and
Almoravid The Almoravid dynasty ( ar, المرابطون, translit=Al-Murābiṭūn, lit=those from the ribats) was an imperial Berber Muslim dynasty centered in the territory of present-day Morocco. It established an empire in the 11th century that st ...
predecessors, saw the protection of the Muslims in the Iberian peninsula, as well as participation in ''
jihad Jihad (; ar, جهاد, jihād ) is an Arabic word which literally means "striving" or "struggling", especially with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it can refer to almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with G ...
'' against the Christian expansion there—the so-called "'' Reconquista''"—as their duty as Muslims and as a way to increase their legitimacy. By the time of Muhammad II's rule, Granada's main objective was to maintain independence from both of these powers, preserve the balance of power, prevent an alliance between them, and control towns on the Castilian frontiers as well as ports on the Strait of Gibraltar, such as
Algeciras Algeciras ( , ) is a municipality of Spain belonging to the province of Cádiz, Andalusia. Located in the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula, near the Strait of Gibraltar, it is the largest city on the Bay of Gibraltar ( es, Bahía de Algeci ...
,
Tarifa Tarifa (, Arabic: طريفة) is a Spanish municipality in the province of Cádiz, Andalusia. Located at the southernmost end of the Iberian Peninsula, it is primarily known as one of the world's most popular destinations for windsports. Tarifa ...
, and
Gibraltar ) , anthem = " God Save the King" , song = "Gibraltar Anthem" , image_map = Gibraltar location in Europe.svg , map_alt = Location of Gibraltar in Europe , map_caption = United Kingdom shown in pale green , mapsize = , image_map2 = Gibr ...
. The contest over control of these strategically important ports, which controlled passage to and from North Africa, lasted until the mid-14th century, in what modern historians call the " Battle of the Strait" (''Batalla del Estrecho''). Besides these two foreign powers, Granada was also challenged by the Banu Ashqilula, another Arjona clan which was initially allied with the Nasrids, and whose military strength had helped establish the kingdom. They rebelled against Muhammad I from at least 1266, and received assistance from Castile, then under the rule of
Alfonso X Alfonso X (also known as the Wise, es, el Sabio; 23 November 1221 – 4 April 1284) was King of Castile, León and Galicia from 30 May 1252 until his death in 1284. During the election of 1257, a dissident faction chose him to be king of Germ ...
, who wanted to keep Granada in check. Alfonso sent a force under Nuño González de Lara to help the Banu Ashqilula, but the Castilian nobleman had his own grievances against Alfonso; Nuño González ended up rebelling against his king, and was welcomed by Muhammad I. In the beginning of Muhammad II's rule, the Banu Ashqilula's territories included
Málaga Málaga (, ) is a Municipalities of Spain, municipality of Spain, capital of the Province of Málaga, in the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia. With a population of 578,460 in 2020, it is the second-most populou ...
—the second biggest city in the emirate after Granada and an important Mediterranean port—as well as
Guadix Guadix (; Local pronunciation: aˈðih is a city and municipalities of Spain, municipality in southern Spain, in the Granada (province), province of Granada. The city lies at an altitude of 913 metres, on the centre of the Hoya of Guadix, a h ...
.


Accession and negotiation with Alfonso X

On 22 January 1273, Muhammad I fell from a horse and died of his injuries. The younger Muhammad took the throne as Muhammad II. As he was the designated heir, the transition of power went smoothly. His first order of business was to deal with the Banu Ashqilula rebellion and the Castilian rebels who had been allied to his father and welcomed in Granadan territories. Relations with the Castilian rebels, who were led by Nuño González and had been useful in checking both Castile and the Banu Ashqilula, weakened as both sides were concerned about losing each other's support after the succession. Alfonso was also interested in reconciling with some of the rebels. Muhammad II then entered into negotiations with Alfonso—if he could secure Castile's alliance, he would not need to worry about losing the support of the rebels. In late 1273, he and some of the rebel leaders visited Alfonso at his court in
Seville Seville (; es, Sevilla, ) is the capital and largest city of the Spanish autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville. It is situated on the lower reaches of the River Guadalquivir, in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsul ...
, where they were welcomed with honour. Alfonso agreed to Granada's demands—to end his support for the Banu Ashqilula—in exchange for Muhammad's promise to be Alfonso's vassal, to pay 300,000 maravedís each year in tribute, and to end his co-operation with the rebels. However, once the payment was made, Alfonso reneged on his part of the bargain, maintained his support for the Banu Ashqilula and pressed Muhammad to grant them a truce.


Marinid expeditions against Castile

Frustrated by Alfonso, Muhammad sought help from the Marinids, ruled by Abu Yusuf Yaqub. While Alfonso was away on a journey to meet Pope
Gregory X Pope Gregory X ( la, Gregorius X;  – 10 January 1276), born Teobaldo Visconti, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 1 September 1271 to his death and was a member of the Secular Franciscan Order. He was ...
, leaving his realm under his heir and the regent
Ferdinand de la Cerda Ferdinand is a Germanic name composed of the elements "protection", "peace" (PIE "to love, to make peace") or alternatively "journey, travel", Proto-Germanic , abstract noun from root "to fare, travel" (PIE , "to lead, pass over"), and "co ...
, Muhammad sent envoys to the Marinid court. Abu Yusuf had expressed interest in fighting the Christians in Spain since 1245, and now, having gained control of the former Almohad capital of
Marrakech Marrakesh or Marrakech ( or ; ar, مراكش, murrākuš, ; ber, ⵎⵕⵕⴰⴽⵛ, translit=mṛṛakc}) is the fourth largest city in the Kingdom of Morocco. It is one of the four Imperial cities of Morocco and is the capital of the Marrake ...
and unified most of Morocco, he had the power and the opportunity to do so. In April 1275 Abu Yusuf mobilised an army which included 5,000 cavalry under the command of his son, Abu Zayyan Mandil. Three months later Abu Zayyan crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, landed at Tarifa and took over the town. Soon the governor of Algeciras seceded from Granada and yielded his town to Abu Zayyan. The Marinid prince established a beachhead between Tarifa and Algeciras, and began raiding Castilian territory up to Jerez. Amid the landings, Muhammad II attacked the Banu Ashqilula in Málaga on June 1275, but he was repulsed. Ferdinand de la Cerda marched to meet the Muslim forces, but he died on 25 July 1275 in
Villareal Villarreal ( ca-valencia , Vila-real) is a city and municipality in the province of Castellón which is part of the Valencian Community in the east of Spain. The town is located at 42 m above sea level, 7 km to the south of the province's ...
, leaving Castile with uncertain leadership. With the beachhead established and the Castilian territories reconnoitred, Abu Yusuf sent more troops across, including his own household troops, ministers, officials and North African clerics. Abu Yusuf himself crossed to Spain on 17 August 1275. He then met with Muhammad and the leader of the Banu Ashqilula, Abu Muhammad, who joined the Sultan with their armies. The Marinids treated the Nasrids and the Banu Ashqilula as equals, and Muhammad, offended at being seen as an equal to his rebellious subjects, left the army after three days, although his forces remained. In September 1275 this army won a major victory against Castile at the Battle of Ecija. Nuño González, now fighting for Castile, was killed. According to Marinid chronicles, the Banu Ashqilula contributed much to this victory and their leaders were present, while Granadan forces contributed little, with Muhammad himself staying in Granada. Abu Zayyan celebrated the victory in Algeciras and sent the head of Nuño González to Granada. This probably offended Muhammad, who abhorred this type of cruelty and might have respected or even befriended his former ally. He embalmed the head in musk and camphor and sent it to Castile to be interred properly with his body. Marinid sources portrayed this as an attempt by Muhammad to "court lfonso'sfriendship". At this point, the Marinids became more friendly with the Banu Ashqilula and less sympathetic towards Muhammad. After losing a naval battle off Tarifa, Abu Yusuf, wary of being cut off from Morocco, decided to return home. Abu Yusuf, Muhammad and Castile agreed to a two-year truce in late December 1275 or early January 1276. Before Abu Yusuf left, Muhammad's secretary Abu Umar ibn Murabit wrote a poem expressing fear of Castile's power and appealing for the Marinids' continued help (''see box''). Abu Yusuf left Spain and landed at
Ksar es-Seghir Ksar es-Seghir ( ar, القصر الصغير, ⵇⵙⴰⵔ ⵙⵖⵉⵔ, ''al-Qasr as-Seghir''), also known by numerous other spellings and names, is a small town on the Mediterranean coast in the Jebala region of northwest Morocco, between Ta ...
on 19 January. Abu Yusuf and the Marinids returned to Spain in June 1277. Initially they were joined by the Banu Ashqilula and campaigned without Muhammad and the Nasrid forces. The Marinids defeated the Castilian forces outside Seville on 2 August and took several castles along the
Guadalquivir The Guadalquivir (, also , , ) is the fifth-longest river in the Iberian Peninsula and the second-longest river with its entire length in Spain. The Guadalquivir is the only major navigable river in Spain. Currently it is navigable from the Gulf ...
river before retiring to Algeciras on 29 August. Abu Yusuf marched again on 30 October, this time joined by Muhammad near
Archidona Archidona is a town and municipality in the province of Málaga, part of the autonomous community of Andalusia in southern Spain. It is the center of the comarca of Nororiental de Málaga and the head of the judicial district that bears its nam ...
. They took the castle of Benamejí, encircled Córdoba and pillaged the surrounding towns. Either Alfonso or the towns affected by the war sued for peace, which was accepted by Muhammad and Abu Yusuf. Abu Yusuf retired to Algeciras on 28 November, concluded a truce on 24 February 1278, and returned to Morocco in May. Although the Marinids had won a battlefield victory and the Muslim forces plundered multiple towns, they failed to take any major settlement or permanently annex Christian territories. On the other hands, the ports of Tarifa and Algeciras on the Strait, remained as the Marinids' outposts in the peninsula.


Diplomatic manoeuvring up to 1280

During Abu Yusuf's second expedition, the Banu Ashqilula handed over Málaga—their centre of power—to their new ally. This action was motivated by the fear that they could not defend it against Granada. The Marinids occupied it in mid-February 1278, and Abu Yusuf appointed his uncle, Umar ibn Yahya, as governor. Muhammad was alarmed at this Marinid encroachment on his domain, reminiscent of the actions of the Almoravids and Almohads, two previous North African Muslim dynasties which had annexed Al-Andalus after initially intervening against the Christians. He encouraged Yaghmurasen of Tlemcen to attack the Marinids in North Africa, and Castile to attack the Marinids' Spanish base at Algeciras. Abu Yusuf, overstretched and attacked on multiple fronts, pulled back from Málaga and handed the city to Muhammad on 31 January 1279. It was also alleged that Granada bribed Umar ibn Yahya by giving him the castle of Salobreña and fifty thousand
gold dinar The gold dinar ( ar, ﺩﻳﻨﺎﺭ ذهبي) is an Islamic medieval gold coin first issued in AH 77 (696–697 CE) by Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan. The weight of the dinar is 1 mithqal (). The word ''dinar'' comes from the Lat ...
s. Muhammad named his cousin and close advisor Abu Said Faraj governor. With Málaga in his hands, Muhammad then helped the Marinids defend Algeciras, possibly feeling guilty about the sufferings of the besieged Muslims in the city. Joint Marinid–Granadan forces defeated the Castilian besiegers in 1279. Castilian sources at the time seemed not to realise the Granadan involvement and thought they were defeated solely by the Marinids.


War on two fronts

The manoeuvring that saw the gain of Málaga and prevented Castile from taking Algeciras angered both the Marinids and Castile. Both, together with the Banu Ashqilula, attacked Muhammad in 1280. The Marinids and Banu Ashqilula moved towards Málaga, unsuccessfully attacking the region of
Marbella Marbella ( , , ) is a city and municipality in southern Spain, belonging to the province of Málaga in the autonomous community of Andalusia. It is part of the Costa del Sol and is the headquarters of the Association of Municipalities of the reg ...
in the south. Castile attacked from the north, led by the
infante ''Infante'' (, ; f. ''infanta''), also anglicised as Infant or translated as Prince, is the title and rank given in the Iberian kingdoms of Spain (including the predecessor kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, Navarre, and León) and Portugal to t ...
(prince) Sancho (later Sancho IV), son of Alfonso, who was checked by the North African Volunteers of the Faith led by Ibn Muhalli and Tashufin ibn Mu'ti. The Volunteers were a component of Granada's military made up of warriors from North Africa, largely political exiles who migrated with their families and tribes. They still defended Granada against Castile despite Granada also being at war with the Marinid state which they came from. On 23 June, Granadan troops ambushed a large Castilian force at Moclín. In June 1281, Castile invaded again, led by Alfonso himself and accompanied by the Infantes Sancho, Peter and John. They defeated Muhammad in a battle near Granada's walls on 25 June, but after the failure of the negotiations that followed, the Castilians left Granada. At the end of 1281, Alfonso sent Sancho to Granada for further negotiations and Muhammad agreed to renew his vassalage to Castile. However, Alfonso accused Sancho of acting treacherously and of appropriating Muhammad's tribute. A rift broke out between the king and his son, which weakened the Castilian threat to Granada. Alfonso ended up asking for Abu Yusuf's help against Sancho, and the two monarchs campaigned together against Sancho's partisans in Castile. Meanwhile, Muhammad sealed an alliance with Sancho at Priego in late 1282. At the end of 1283, Abu Yusuf attacked Málaga, forcing Muhammad to sue for peace. Mediated by Abu Yusuf's son,
Abu Yaqub Yusuf Abu Ya`qub Yusuf or Yusuf I ( ''Abū Ya‘qūb Yūsuf''; 1135 – 14 October 1184) was the second Almohad ''Amir'' or caliph. He reigned from 1163 until 1184 in Marrakesh. He was responsible for the construction of the Giralda in Seville, which ...
, they agreed to reconcile and attack the Christians together. Alfonso died in 1284, and was succeeded by Sancho. Sancho was friendly towards Granada and pulled back the Castilian troops, while Muhammad declared his vassalage to him. In 1286 Abu Yusuf died and was succeeded by his son Abu Yaqub. At the beginning of his reign Abu Yaqub was more preoccupied with domestic affairs, and so withdrew his forces from the Iberian campaign. In 1288 Abu Yaqub offered the Banu Ashqilula lands in North Africa. The clan took up the offer and emigrated ''en masse'' from Granadan territory.


Tarifa campaigns

The Marinids retained outposts in Iberia, including
Tarifa Tarifa (, Arabic: طريفة) is a Spanish municipality in the province of Cádiz, Andalusia. Located at the southernmost end of the Iberian Peninsula, it is primarily known as one of the world's most popular destinations for windsports. Tarifa ...
, an important port town on the Strait of Gibraltar. In 1290, Muhammad came to an arrangement with Sancho and the ruler of Tlemcen. Castile would attack Tarifa, Granada would attack other Marinid possessions, and Tlemcen would open hostilities against the Marinids in North Africa. According to the agreement, Castile would then hand Tarifa to Granada in exchange for six border fortresses. In November and December 1291,
James II of Aragon James II (Catalan: ''Jaume II''; Spanish: ''Jaime II;'' 10 April 1267 – 2 or 5 November 1327), called the Just,, an, Chaime lo Chusto, es, Jaime el Justo. was the King of Aragon and Valencia and Count of Barcelona from 1291 to 1327. He ...
met Sancho and agreed to join the war against the Marinids. In October 1292 Castile, with assistance from Aragon's navy and supplied by Granada, succeeded in taking Tarifa. Castile also took the six border fortresses from Granada as agreed, but refused to cede Tarifa even after Muhammad met with Sancho in Córdoba in December. Granada, feeling cheated, then switched sides to the Marinids. Muhammad travelled to North Africa and met Abu Ya'qub at
Tangier Tangier ( ; ; ar, طنجة, Ṭanja) is a city in northwestern Morocco. It is on the Moroccan coast at the western entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean Sea meets the Atlantic Ocean off Cape Spartel. The town is the capi ...
on 24 October, bearing many gifts and asking his friendship and forgiveness. Both monarchs agreed to an alliance against Castile. In 1294, the Marinids and Granada unsuccessfully besieged Tarifa. The town would never again be in Muslim hands. After this failure, the Marinids decided to withdraw to North Africa. Granada proceeded to retake its former outposts, including Algeciras and—after some local resistance—
Ronda Ronda () is a town in the Spanish province of Málaga. It is located about west of the city of Málaga, within the autonomous community of Andalusia. Its population is about 35,000. Ronda is known for its cliff-side location and a deep chasm ...
.


Final years and death

In 1295, Sancho died and was succeeded by his nine-year-old son Ferdinand IV. During his minority Castile was governed by a regency led by his uncle, Infante Henry. His cousin,
Alfonso de la Cerda Alfonso de la Cerda, (Valladolid 1270 - Ávila 1333), called "the Disinherited", was the elder son of Ferdinand de la Cerda and his wife Blanche of France, and was a grandson of Alfonso X of Castile. Alfonso and his brother Fernando were can ...
made a rival claim for the throne, supported by James of Aragon. Muhammad exploited this situation to strike at Castile: in late 1295 he captured Quesada and routed a Castilian army at the Battle of Iznalloz. Ferdinand was also attacked by Aragon,
Denis of Portugal Denis (, ; 9 October 1261 – 7 January 1325 in Santarém), called the Farmer King (''Rei Lavrador'') and the Poet King (''Rei Poeta''), was King of Portugal. The eldest son of Afonso III of Portugal by his second wife, Beatrice of Castile, an ...
, and his uncle, Infante John. In 1296, Granada and Aragon concluded a pact of friendship and agreed to split their objectives:
Murcia Murcia (, , ) is a city in south-eastern Spain, the capital and most populous city of the autonomous community of the Region of Murcia, and the seventh largest city in the country. It has a population of 460,349 inhabitants in 2021 (about one ...
would go to Aragon and
Andalusia Andalusia (, ; es, Andalucía ) is the southernmost autonomous community in Peninsular Spain. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a "historical nationality". The ...
to Granada. In June 1296, Infante Henry made peace overtures to Muhammad, offering to hand over Tarifa, but this broke down when the town's commander, Alfonso Pérez de Guzmán, declared that he would not hand it over even if ordered to do so. Late that year, Granadan forces defeated Infante Henry near Arjona and nearly captured him. Henry's horse was captured, but Muhammad ordered it returned in a gesture of chivalry. The Marinids joined the war to support Granada and defeated Castile in a major battle near Seville in May or June 1299; they then laid siege to Tarifa. Castile renewed the offer to yield Tarifa in exchange for an alliance with Granada, but this was again frustrated by Alfonso Pérez's refusal to comply. The war continued and Muhammad took more border fortresses, including
Alcaudete Alcaudete is a city located in the province of Jaén, Andalusia, Spain. As of 2018, it has a population of 10,558. It is home to a 12th-14th century Moorish castle, located on the top of the hill commanding the town. Other sights include the ''Ig ...
in June 1299, and raided Castilian cities including Jaén and
Andújar Andújar () is a Spanish municipality of 38,539 people (2005) in the province of Jaén, in Andalusia. The municipality is divided by the Guadalquivir River. The northern part of the municipality is where the Natural Park of the Sierra de And� ...
. In April 1301, Muhammad and James renewed their alliance, although James secretly sent supplies to the besieged Christians in Tarifa. On 6 September,
Pope Boniface VIII Pope Boniface VIII ( la, Bonifatius PP. VIII; born Benedetto Caetani, c. 1230 – 11 October 1303) was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 24 December 1294 to his death in 1303. The Caetani family was of baronial ...
declared Ferdinand the legitimate king of Castile, weakening the resolve and legitimacy of his Christian enemies. In September 1301, Granada and Aragon renewed their alliance at
Zaragoza Zaragoza, also known in English as Saragossa,''Encyclopædia Britannica'"Zaragoza (conventional Saragossa)" is the capital city of the Zaragoza Province and of the autonomous community of Aragon, Spain. It lies by the Ebro river and its tributa ...
. They planned a new offensive against Castile and aligned their war goals; among others they agreed that Granada was to regain Tarifa and acquire several frontier towns. This agreement was ratified in January 1302, and subsequently Alfonso de la Cerda also joined the alliance and recognised Muhammad's rights to Tarifa. However, before the campaign started, Muhammad II died on 8 April 1302 (8 Shaban 701 AH). He was succeeded by his son, Muhammad III. There were allegations that Muhammad III, perhaps impatient to assume power, had poisoned his father, although this was never confirmed., citing
Ibn al-Khatib Lisan ad-Din Ibn al-Khatib ( ar, لسان الدين ابن الخطيب, Lisān ad-Dīn Ibn al-Khaṭīb) (Born 16 November 1313, Loja– died 1374, Fes; full name in ar, محمد بن عبد الله بن سعيد بن عبد الله بن س ...
: "A story was put about that uhammad IIhad been poisoned by a sweetmeat administered by his heir." : "It was alleged that uhammad IIIhad in fact poisoned his father."


Governance and legacy

Muhammad built on the nascent state created by his father, and continued to secure his realm's independence by alternatively allying with other powers, especially Castile and the Marinids, and sometimes encouraging them to fight each other. A sense of identity also emerged in the realm, united by religion (Islam), language (
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walte ...
), and an awareness of an ever-present threat to its survival from its
Romance Romance (from Vulgar Latin , "in the Roman language", i.e., "Latin") may refer to: Common meanings * Romance (love), emotional attraction towards another person and the courtship behaviors undertaken to express the feelings * Romance languages, ...
-speaking Christian neighbours. Historian
Ibn Khaldun Ibn Khaldun (; ar, أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون الحضرمي, ; 27 May 1332 – 17 March 1406, 732-808 AH) was an Arab The Historical Muhammad', Irving M. Zeitlin, (Polity Press, 2007), p. 21; "It is, o ...
commented that these ties served as a replacement for ''
asabiyyah 'Asabiyyah or 'asabiyya ( ar, عصبيّة, 'group feeling' or 'social cohesion') is a concept of social solidarity with an emphasis on unity, group consciousness, and a sense of shared purpose and social cohesion, originally used in the context ...
'' or tribal solidarity, which Ibn Khaldun thought was fundamental to the rise and fall of a state. Muhammad II was the true organiser of the Nasrid state with his reforms to the administration and the army. His considerable legislative activity included the institution of the Nasrid royal protocol (''rusūm al-mulk''), and of the court chancery (''al-kitāba''), in which the chief figure of his reign was the future vizier Abu Abdallah ibn al-Hakim. His reign also saw the expansion and institutionalisation of the Volunteers of the Faith (also called ''ghazi''s in Arabic): soldiers recruited from North Africa to defend Granada against the Christians. Many of them were members of tribes or families which had been exiled from the Marinid state. Some of them settled in the city of Granada, establishing the quarter of Zenete (named after the Berber tribe of
Zenata The Zenata (Berber language: Iznaten) are a group of Amazigh (Berber) tribes, historically one of the largest Berber confederations along with the Sanhaja and Masmuda. Their lifestyle was either nomadic or semi-nomadic. Etymology ''Iznaten (� ...
), and some in the western areas of the realm, such as Ronda and the surrounding area. They received payments from the state, but often came into conflict with the locals in the areas they settled. When, in the early 1280s, Granada came into conflict with the Marinids, the Volunteers remained loyal and defended Granada against Castile, when it attacked at the same time. Over time, the Volunteers became Granada's most important military force, numbering 10,000 at the end of Muhammad's rule and eclipsing Granada's locally recruited army. Their leader, the ''shaikh al-ghuzat'', held an influential position in Granadan politics. Different men were named as the ''shaikh'' by Muhammad at different points of his reign, including Ali ibn Abi Iyad ibn Abd al-Haqq, Tasfin ibn Mu'ti, Musa ibn Rahhu, Abd al-Haqq ibn Rahhu, and Ibrahim ibn Yahya. Territorially, Muhammad consolidated his realm and gained several strongholds in the
Kingdom of Jaén The Kingdom of Jaén ( es, reino de Jaén) was a territorial jurisdiction of the Crown of Castile since 1246 and until Javier de Burgos' provincial division of Spain in 1833. This was a "kingdom" () in the second sense given by the : the Crow ...
, including Quesada and Alcaudete. He lost Tarifa to Castile, and from this point the town would never again be in Muslim hands. The internal threat from the Banu Ashqilula was eliminated, and Muhammad not only saw off successfully the repeated Marinid attacks, but deprived them of their holdings in Al-Andalus as well. Muhammad oversaw a large-scale fortification project for the kingdom's defences, building a series of strategically positioned and well-supplied strongholds from the west to the east, which formed the backbone of Granadan frontier defences in the centuries to come. He worked with his own hands during the constructions of the moat (''khandaq'') in Alcaudete. The fortifications that he built also served to enforce royal authority because they were controlled by military governors (''qa'id''s) appointed and rotated by the court rather than by hereditary lords. They were often located in mountainous or other areas that were difficult to reach, and could only be conquered or breached by expensive siege warfare. Muhammad increased the importance of the vizier in the Nasrid state. He had only one vizier throughout his long reign, Abu Sultan Aziz ibn Ali ibn al-Mun'im al-Dani, who became his trusted ally. He also served as Muhammad's ambassador to the Marinids, commanded some military operations, and co-signed many royal documents. Muhammad also expanded the
Alhambra The Alhambra (, ; ar, الْحَمْرَاء, Al-Ḥamrāʾ, , ) is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Andalusia, Spain. It is one of the most famous monuments of Islamic architecture and one of the best-preserved palaces of the ...
, steadily establishing a royal residence zone in what was largely a fortress complex built by his father. He continued his father's constructions of a precinct wall surrounding the royal zone, as well as multiple residence buildings and bathhouses. The chronology for each part of the Alhambra during the early Nasrid period is not always clear—partly due to alterations and renovations under later Muslim or Christian rulers—but Muhammad II definitely built the original palace that today becomes the Convent of San Francisco as well as the original Dar al-Mamlaka al-Saida in the
Generalife The Generalife (; ar, جَنَّة الْعَرِيف, translit=Jannat al-‘Arīf) was a summer palace and country estate of the Nasrid rulers of the Emirate of Granada in Al-Andalus. It is located directly east of and uphill from the Alhambra ...
. He also built the Tower of the Ladies (''Torre de las Damas'', the site of today's Partal Palace built by his son Muhammad III) and the Tower of the Points (''Torre de los Picos''). Further afield, the Nasrid palace structure now known as the '' Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo'', located on along the edge of what was Granada's southern walls, has been dated by scholars to his reign as well. Externally, Muhammad pursued an increase in trade with Christian Europe, especially with Italian traders from
Genoa Genoa ( ; it, Genova ; lij, Zêna ). is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015, 594,733 people lived within the city's administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Ge ...
and
Pisa Pisa ( , or ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, central Italy, straddling the Arno just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for its leaning tower, the city ...
. On 18 April 1279, Muhammad concluded a treaty with the ambassador of Genoa, granting the republic the rights to export Granadan goods with an especially low fee of 6.5% and to establish a
trading post A trading post, trading station, or trading house, also known as a factory, is an establishment or settlement where goods and services could be traded. Typically the location of the trading post would allow people from one geographic area to tr ...
in the emirate, in exchange for supplying ships to Granada in the event of conflict against another Muslim power not allied to Genoa. Muhammad II was known by the epithet ''al-Faqih'', literally meaning "the canon-lawyer", but which can also be understood as "the Wise", and reflects not only his high education, but also his preference for surrounding himself with scholars and poets. Much like his contemporary, King Alfonso X of Castile, Muhammad wrote poetry—he was a decent poet himself according to Ibn al-Khatib—and fostered significant cultural activity at his court. He competed with Alfonso in attracting learned men, especially Muslim men of science from territories conquered by the Christians. Among those he welcomed to his court were the mathematician-physician Muhammad al-Riquti and the astronomer-mathematician Muhammad ibn al-Raqqam, who migrated to Granada despite being offered substantial payments by Alfonso if they were to convert and stay in Christian territory. The Spanish historian Ana Isabel Carrasco Manchado writes, "''al-Faqih'' is an unusual sobriquet among Andalusi rulers; it underlined a political personality that intended to affirm itself through association with intellectual practice and with the faith, as well as with justice and legal norms, facets which overlap in the activity of the ''faqih''s".


References


Citations


Bibliography

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Primary sources

* * {{DEFAULTSORT:Muhammad 02 al-Faqih, Sultan of Granada Sultans of Granada 13th-century monarchs in Europe 1234 births 1302 deaths 13th century in Al-Andalus 13th-century Arabs