The Mixtón War (1540-1542) was a rebellion by the
Caxcan people of northwestern
Mexico
Mexico (Spanish language, Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a List of sovereign states, country in the southern portion of North America. It is borders of Mexico, bordered to the north by the United States; to the so ...
against the Spanish conquerors. The war was named after Mixtón, a hill in
Zacatecas which served as an Indigenous stronghold.
The Caxcanes
Although other indigenous groups also fought against the Spanish in the Mixtón War, the
Caxcanes were the "heart and soul" of the resistance. The Caxcanes lived in the northern part of the present-day Mexican state of
Jalisco, in southern
Zacatecas, and
Aguascalientes. They are often considered part of the
Chichimeca, a generic term used by the Spaniards and
Aztec
The Aztecs () were a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec people included different ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl ...
s for all the nomadic and semi-nomadic Native Americans living in the deserts of northern Mexico. However, the Caxcanes seem to have been sedentary, depending upon agriculture for their livelihood and living in permanent towns and settlements. They were, perhaps, the most northerly of the agricultural, town-and-city dwelling peoples of interior Mexico. The Caxcanes are believed to have spoken a
Uto-Aztecan language. Other Native Americans participating in the revolt were the
Zacatecos from the state of the same name.
Background
The first contact of the Caxcanes and other indigenous peoples of the northwestern Mexico with the Spanish, was in 1529 when
Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán set forth from
Mexico City
Mexico City ( es, link=no, Ciudad de México, ; abbr.: CDMX; Nahuatl: ''Altepetl Mexico'') is the capital and largest city of Mexico, and the most populous city in North America. One of the world's alpha cities, it is located in the Valley o ...
with 300-400 Spaniards and 5,000 to 8,000
Aztec
The Aztecs () were a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec people included different ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl ...
and
Tlaxcalan allies on a march through
Nayarit,
Jalisco,
Durango,
Sinaloa, and
Zacatecas. Over a six-year period Guzmán, who was brutal even by the standards of the day, killed, tortured, and enslaved thousands of natives. Guzmán’s policy was to "terrorize the natives with often unprovoked killing, torture, and enslavement". Guzmán and his lieutenants founded towns and Spanish settlements in the region, called
Nueva Galicia, including
Guadalajara in or near the homeland of the Caxcanes. But the Spaniards encountered increased resistance as they moved further from the complex hierarchical societies of Central Mexico and attempted to force natives into servitude through the
encomienda system.
The War
In spring 1540, the Caxcanes and their allies struck back, emboldened perhaps by the fact that Governor
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado had taken more than 1,600 Spaniards and indigenous allies from the region northward with him on his expedition to what would become the United States’
Southwest. The province was thus bereft of many of its most competent soldiers. The spark that set off the war was apparently the arrest of eighteen rebellious indigenous leaders and the hanging of nine of them in mid-1540. Later in the same year the natives rose up to kill, roast, and eat the encomendero Juan de Arze. Spanish authorities also became aware that the natives were participating in "devilish" dances. After killing two Catholic priests, many natives fled the encomiendas and took refuge in the mountains, especially in the hill fortress of Mixtón. Acting Governor
Cristóbal de Oñate led a Spanish and native force to quell the rebellion. The Caxcanes killed a delegation of one priest and ten Spanish soldiers. Oñate attempted to storm Mixtón, but the natives on the summit repelled his attack. Oñate then requested reinforcements from the capital,
Mexico City
Mexico City ( es, link=no, Ciudad de México, ; abbr.: CDMX; Nahuatl: ''Altepetl Mexico'') is the capital and largest city of Mexico, and the most populous city in North America. One of the world's alpha cities, it is located in the Valley o ...
.
The command structure of the Caxcanes is unknown but the most prominent leader who emerged among them was
Tenamaztle of
Nochistlán
Nochistlán () is a city in the Mexican state of Zacatecas. Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán, on December 3, 1531, hired Cristóbal de Oñate to establish a village in Nochistlán; the village would be named Guadalajara to honor Guzmán for having bee ...
,
Zacatecas.
The Viceroy
Antonio de Mendoza called upon the experienced conquistador
Pedro de Alvarado to assist in putting down the revolt. Alvarado declined to await reinforcements and attacked Mixtón in June 1541 with 400 Spaniards and an unknown number of indigenous allies. He was met there by an estimated 15,000 natives under Tenamaztle and Don Diego, a
Zacateco. The first attack of the Spanish was repulsed with 10 Spaniards and many indigenous allies killed. Subsequent attacks by Alvarado were also unsuccessful and on June 24 Alvarado was injured when a horse fell on him. He died on July 4.
Emboldened, the natives attacked the city of
Guadalajara in September but were repulsed. The indigenous army retired to
Nochistlán
Nochistlán () is a city in the Mexican state of Zacatecas. Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán, on December 3, 1531, hired Cristóbal de Oñate to establish a village in Nochistlán; the village would be named Guadalajara to honor Guzmán for having bee ...
and other strongpoints. The Spanish authorities were now thoroughly alarmed and feared that the revolt would spread. They assembled a force of 450 Spaniards and 30,000-60,000 Aztec, Tlaxcalan, and other natives, and under Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza invaded the land of the Caxcanes. With his overwhelming force, Mendoza reduced the indigenous strongholds one-by-one in a war of
no quarter
The phrase no quarter was generally used during military conflict to imply combatants would not be taken prisoner, but killed.
According to some modern American dictionaries, a person who is given no quarter is "not treated kindly" or "treated ...
. On November 9, 1541, he captured the city of
Nochistlán
Nochistlán () is a city in the Mexican state of Zacatecas. Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán, on December 3, 1531, hired Cristóbal de Oñate to establish a village in Nochistlán; the village would be named Guadalajara to honor Guzmán for having bee ...
and Tenamaztle, but the indigenous leader later escaped. Tenamaztle would remain at large as a guerilla until 1550. In early 1542 the stronghold of Mixtón fell to the Spaniards and the rebellion was over. The aftermath of the natives' defeat was that "thousands were dragged off in chains to the mines, and many of the survivors (mostly women and children) were transported from their homelands to work on Spanish farms and haciendas.". By the viceroy's order men, women, and children were seized and executed, some by cannon fire, some torn apart by dogs, and others stabbed. The reports of the excessive violence against indigenous civilians caused the
Council of the Indies to undertake a secret investigation into the conduct of the viceroy.
Aftermath
As one authority said, the success of Cortés in defeating the Aztecs in only two years "created an illusion of European superiority over the Indian as a warrior." However, the Spanish victories over the Aztecs and other complex societies "proved to be but a prelude to a far longer military struggle against the peculiar and terrifying prowess of Indian America’s more primitive warriors."
Victory in the Mixtón War enabled the Spanish to control the region in which
Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico’s second largest city, was located. It also opened up Spanish access to the deserts of the north in which Spanish explorers would search for and find rich silver deposits.
After their defeat the Caxcanes were absorbed into Spanish society and lost their identity as a distinct people. They would later serve as auxiliaries to Spanish soldiers in their continued advance northward.
Spanish expansion after the Mixtón War would lead to the longer and even more bloody
Chichimeca War (1550–1590). The Spanish were forced to change their policy from one of forcibly subjugating the native population to accommodation and gradual absorption, a process taking centuries.
The Caxcanes possibly survive into the 21st century, at least in folk festivals, as the Tastuane people. Annual fiestas of the Tastuanes in towns such as
Moyahua de Estrada,
Zacatecas, commemorate the Mixtón War.
See also
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Antonio de Mendoza
*
Nuño de Guzmán
*
Pedro de Alvarado
*
La Gran Chichimeca
References
Further reading
English
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Spanish
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{{Authority control
1540s conflicts
16th-century rebellions
Rebellions in Mexico
Colonial Mexico
History of Mesoamerica
Mesoamerican warfare
Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish Empire
Wars involving the indigenous peoples of North America
History of Nayarit
History of Zacatecas
1540s in Mexico
1540s in New Spain