The military of the Ottoman Empire ( tr, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun silahlı kuvvetleri) was the
armed forces of the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University ...
.
Army
The military of the Ottoman Empire can be divided in five main periods. The foundation era covers the years between 1300 (Byzantine expedition) and 1453 (
Conquest of Constantinople), the classical period covers the years between 1451 (second enthronement of Sultan
Mehmed II) and 1606 (
Peace of Zsitvatorok
The Peace of Zsitvatorok (or Treaty of Sitvatorok) was a peace treaty which ended the 15-year Long Turkish War between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg monarchy on 11 November 1606. The treaty was part of a system of peace treaties which put ...
), the reformation period covers the years between 1606 and 1826 (
Vaka-i Hayriye), the modernisation period covers the years between 1826 and 1858 and decline period covers the years between 1861 (enthronement of Sultan
Abdülaziz) and 1918 (
Armistice of Mudros). The Ottoman army is the forerunner of the
Turkish Armed Forces.
Foundation period (1300–1453)
The earliest form of the Ottoman military was a steppe-nomadic cavalry force.
[Mesut Uyar, Edward J. Erickson, ''A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk'', Pleager Security International, , 2009, p. 1.] This was centralized by
Osman I from
Turkoman tribesmen inhabiting western
Anatolia in the late 13th century.
These horsemen became an
irregular force of raiders used as
shock troops, armed with weapons like bows and spears. They were given fiefs called ''
timar
A timar was a land grant by the sultans of the Ottoman Empire between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, with an annual tax revenue of less than 20,000 akçes. The revenues produced from the land acted as compensation for military service ...
s'' in the conquered lands, and were later called
timariots
Timariot (or ''tımar'' holder; ''tımarlı'' in Turkish) was the name given to a Sipahi cavalryman in the Ottoman army. In return for service, each timariot received a parcel of revenue called a timar, a fief
A fief (; la, feudum) wa ...
. In addition they acquired wealth during campaigns.
Orhan I organized a standing army paid by salary rather than
looting or fiefs. The infantry were called
yayas and the cavalry was known as ''müsellem''s. The force was made up by foreign
mercenaries for the most part, and only a few Turks were content to accept salaries in place of timars. Foreign mercenaries were not required to convert to
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or '' Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the ...
as long as they obeyed their Ottoman commanders.
The Ottomans began using guns in the late 14th century. Following that, other troop types began to appear, such as the regular
musketeers (''Piyade Topçu'', literally "foot artillery"); regular cavalry armed with
firearms (''Süvari Topçu Neferi'', literally "mounted artillery soldier"), similar to the later European
reiter or
carabinier; and bombardiers (''
Humbaracı
Humbaracı corps were bombardier and mortar troops of the Ottoman army.
It is considered as the first organized and specialized troops in the corps level for this class in the military history of the world.
Name
''Humbara'' (also pronounced ...
''), consisting of
grenadiers who threw explosives called khımbara and the soldiers who served the artillery with maintenance and powder supplies.
The Ottoman Empire was the first of the three Islamic
Gunpowder Empires, followed by
Safavid Persia and
Mughal India. By the 14th century, the Ottomans had adopted gunpowder
artillery. The adoption of the gunpowder weapons by the Ottomans was so rapid that they "preceded both their European and Middle Eastern adversaries in establishing centralized and permanent troops specialized in the manufacturing and handling of
firearms." But it was their use of artillery shocked their adversaries and impelled the other two Islamic Gunpowder Empires to accelerate their weapons program. The Ottomans had artillery at least by the reign of
Bayezid I and used them in the sieges of Constantinople in 1399 and 1402. They finally proved their worth as siege engines in the successful
siege of Salonica in 1430.
The Ottoman military's regularized use of firearms proceeded ahead of the pace of their European counterparts. The
Janissaries had initially been an infantry bodyguard using bows and arrows. By the time of
Sultan Mehmed II, they had been drilled with firearms and became "perhaps the first standing infantry force equipped with firearms in the world." The Janissaries are thus considered the first modern standing armies. The combination of artillery and
Janissary firepower proved decisive at
Varna in 1444 against a force of Crusaders, and later
Başkent and
Chaldoran against the
Aq Qoyunlu and Safavids.
Classical Army (1451–1606)
Ottoman Classical Army was the military structure and the founding and main
army
An army (from Old French ''armee'', itself derived from the Latin verb ''armāre'', meaning "to arm", and related to the Latin noun ''arma'', meaning "arms" or "weapons"), ground force or land force is a fighting force that fights primarily on ...
established by
Mehmed II, during his reorganization of the state and the military efforts. This is the major reorganization following
Orhan I which organized a standing army paid by salary rather than
booty
Booty may refer to:
Music
* Booty music (also known as Miami bass or booty bass), a subgenre of hip hop
* "Booty" (Jennifer Lopez song), 2014
* Booty (Blac Youngsta song), 2017
*Booty (C. Tangana and Becky G song), 2018
*"Booty", a 1993 song by ...
or fiefs. This army was the force during
rise of the Ottoman Empire. The organization was twofold, central (Kapu Kulu) and peripheral (Eyalet). The classical Ottoman army was the most disciplined and feared military force of its time, mainly due to its high level of organization, logistical capabilities and its elite troops. Following a century long reform efforts, this Army was forced to disbandment by Sultan
Mahmud II on 15 June 1826 by what is known as
Auspicious Incident. By the reign of Mahmud the second, the elite janissaries had become corrupt and always stood in the way of modernization efforts meaning they were more of a liability than an asset.
By the
siege of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottomans had large enough
cannons
A cannon is a large-caliber gun classified as a type of artillery, which usually launches a projectile using explosive chemical propellant. Gunpowder ("black powder") was the primary propellant before the invention of smokeless powder dur ...
to batter the walls of the city, to the surprise of the defenders. The
Dardanelles Gun was designed and cast in bronze in 1464 by Munir Ali. The Dardanelles Gun was still present for duty more than 340 years later in 1807, when a
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against Fr ...
force appeared and commenced the
Dardanelles Operation. Turkish forces loaded the ancient relics with
propellant and
projectiles, then fired them at the British ships. The British squadron suffered 28 casualties from this bombardment.
[Schmidtchen, Volker (1977b), "Riesengeschütze des 15. Jahrhunderts. Technische Höchstleistungen ihrer Zeit", ''Technikgeschichte'' 44 (3): 213–237 (226–228)]
The
musket first appeared in the Ottoman Empire by 1465.
Damascus steel was later used in the production of firearms such as the musket from the 16th century. At the
Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 muskets "formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest." The Chinese later adopted the Ottoman kneeling position for firing. In 1598, Chinese writer Zhao Shizhen described Turkish muskets as being superior to European muskets.
The
marching band and
military band both have their origins in the
Ottoman military band, performed by the Janissary since the 16th century.
Reform on Classical Army (1606–1826)
The main theme of this period is reforming the
Janissaries. The Janissary corps were originally made up of enslaved young Christian boys, generally from the western Balkans, who were forced to convert to Islam and were educated in military matters under the Ottoman Empire. During the 15th and 16th Centuries they became known as the most efficient and effective military unit in Europe..By 1570 born Muslims were accepted into the Janissaries corps and by the 17th century most would be born Muslims. According to Jason Goodwin in the 17th and 18th centuries most Janissaries were Muslim Albanians.
Aside from the Janissary infantry, there was also the Sipahi Cavalry. They were, however, different from the Janissaries in that they had both military and administrative duties. The Janissaries were tied strictly to being able to perform military duties at any time, however the Sipahi were treated differently primarily in that they got their income from the land that was given to them from the Sultan under the timariot system. Within these agricultural lands, the Sipahi were in charge of collecting the taxes which would serve as their salary. At the same time they were responsible for maintaining peace and order there. They were also expected to be able to serve in the military whenever the Sultan deemed their service necessary.
In 1621, the Chinese ''
Wu Pei Chih'' described Ottoman muskets that used a
rack-and-pinion
A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a circular gear (the ''pinion'') engaging a linear gear (the ''rack''). Together, they convert rotational motion into linear motion. Rotating the pinion causes the rack to be driven i ...
mechanism, which was not known to have been used in any European or Chinese firearms at the time.
The Ottoman Empire made numerous efforts to recruit French experts for its modernization. The French officer and adventurer
Claude-Alexandre de Bonneval (1675–1747) went in the service of Sultan
Mahmud I, converted to
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or '' Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the ...
, and endeavoured to modernize the
Ottoman army, creating cannon foundries, powder and musket factories and a military engineering school. Another officer
François Baron de Tott was involved in the
reform efforts for the Ottoman military. He succeeded in having a new foundry built to make
howitzers, and was instrumental in the creation of mobile artillery units. He built fortifications on the
Bosphorus and started a naval science course that laid the foundation stone for the later
Turkish Naval Academy.
He could only achieve limited success, however. Unfortunately it was almost impossible for him to divert soldiers from the regular army into the new units. The new ships and guns that made it into service were too few to have much of an influence on the Ottoman army and de Tott returned home.
When they had requested French help in 1795, young
Napoleon Bonaparte was scheduled to be sent to Constantinople to help organize Ottoman artillery. He did not go, for just days before he was to embark for the Near East he proved himself useful to the Directory by putting down a Parisian mob at ''
13 Vendémiaire
13 Vendémiaire Year 4 in the French Republican Calendar (5 October 1795 in the Gregorian calendar) is the name given to a battle between the French Revolutionary troops and Royalist forces in the streets of Paris. This battle was part of the ...
'' and was kept in France.
The supply of Ottoman forces operating in Moldavia and Wallachia was a major challenge that required well organized logistics. An army of 60,000 soldiers and 40,000 horses required a half-million kilograms of food per day. The Ottoman forces fared better than the Russians, but the expenses crippled both national treasuries. Supplies on both sides came using fixed prices, taxes, and confiscation.
Sultan
Selim III in 1789 to 1807 set up the "
Nizam-i Cedid"
ew orderarmy to replace the inefficient and outmoded imperial army. The old system depended on
Janissaries, who had largely lost their military effectiveness. Selim closely followed Western military forms. It would be expensive for a new army, so a new treasury
Irad-i Cedid'was established . The result was the Porte now had an efficient, European-trained army equipped with modern weapons. However it had fewer than 10,000 soldiers in an era when Western armies were ten to fifty times larger. Furthermore, the Sultan was upsetting the well-established traditional political powers. As a result, it was rarely used, apart from its use against Napoleon's expeditionary force at Gaza and Rosetta. The new army was dissolved by reactionary elements with the overthrow of Selim in 1807, but it became the model of the new Ottoman Army created later in the 19th century.
Efforts for a new system (1826–1858)
The main theme of this period is disbanding the Janissary, which happened in 1826, and changing the military culture. The major event is "Vaka-ı Hayriye" translated as
Auspicious Incident. The military units formed were used in the
Crimean War,
Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), and
Greco-Turkish War (1897).
The failed efforts of a new system dates before 1826. Sultan Selim III formed the
Nizam-ı Cedid army (Nizam-ı Cedid meaning New Order) in the late 18th century and early 19th century. This was the first serious attempt to transform the Ottoman military forces into a modern army. However, the Nizam-ı Cedid was short lived, dissolving after the abdication of Selim III in 1807.
Sultan Mahmud II, Selim III's successor and nephew, who was a great reformer, disbanded the Janissaries in 1826 with so-called known as "Vaka-ı Hayriye" (the auspicious incident).
The
Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye was established, as a contemporary modern army.
Egypt, as part of the empire, also underwent drastic military changes during
Muhammad Ali Pasha's reign. The two largest military reforms were the effective practices of indoctrination and surveillance, which dramatically changed the way the military was both conducted by the leadership and also perceived by the rest of society. New military law codes resulted in isolation, extreme surveillance, and severe punishments to enforce obedience. The Pasha's goal was to create a high regard for the law and strict obedience stemming from sincere want. This shift from direct control by bodily punishment to indirect control through strict law enforcement aimed to make the soldiers' lives predictable, thus creating a more manageable military for the Pasha.
Modern Army (1861–1918)
The main theme of this period is organizing and training the newly formed units. The change of French system to German system as the German military mission was most effective during the period. The military units formed were used in the
Balkan Wars and
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll, one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, ...
.
The shift from Classical Army (1451–1606) took more than a century beginning from failed attempts of Selim III (1789) to a period of
Ottoman military reforms (1826–1858) and finally Abdulhamid II. Abdulhamid II, as early as 1880 sought, and two years later secured, German assistance, which culminated in the appointment of Lt. Col. Kohler. However. Although the consensus that Abdulhamid favored the modernization of the Ottoman army and the professionalization of the officer corps was fairly general, it seems that he neglected the military during the last fifteen years of his reign, and he also cut down the military budget. The formation of Ottoman Modern Army was a slow process with ups and downs.
Navy
The
Ottoman Navy, also known as the Ottoman Fleet, was established in the early 14th century after the empire first expanded to reach the sea in 1323 by capturing
Karamürsel, the site of the first Ottoman naval shipyard and the nucleus of the future Navy. During its long existence, it was
involved in many conflicts and signed a number of maritime treaties. At its height, the Navy
extended to the Indian Ocean, sending an
expedition to Indonesia in 1565.
For much of its history, the Navy was led by the position of the
Kapudan Pasha (Grand Admiral; literally "Captain Pasha"). This position was abolished in 1867, when it was
replaced by the Minister of the Navy ( tr, Bahriye Nazırı) and a number of
Fleet Commanders ( tr, Donanma Komutanları).
After the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the Navy's tradition was continued under the
Turkish Naval Forces
The Turkish Naval Forces ( tr, ), or Turkish Navy ( tr, ) is the naval warfare service branch of the Turkish Armed Forces.
The modern naval traditions and customs of the Turkish Navy can be traced back to 10 July 1920, when it was establis ...
of the
Republic of Turkey in 1923.
Aviation
The
Ottoman Aviation Squadrons were military aviation units of the
Ottoman Army and
Navy.
[Edward J. Erickson, ''Ordered To Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War'', "Appendix D The Ottoman Aviation Inspectorate and Aviation Squadrons", , p. 227.] The history of Ottoman military aviation dates back to June 1909 or July 1911 depending if active duty assignment is accepted as the establishment. The organisation is sometimes referred to as the Ottoman Air Force. According to Edward J. Erickson, the very term Ottoman Air Force is a gross exaggeration and the term Osmanlı Hava Kuvvetleri (Ottoman Air Force) unfortunately is often repeated in contemporary Turkish sources.
The fleet size reached its greatest in December 1916, when the Ottoman aviation squadrons had 90 airplanes. The Aviation Squadrons were reorganized as the "General Inspectorate of Air Forces" (''Kuva-yı Havaiye Müfettiş-i Umumiliği'') on 29 July 1918. With the signing of the
Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, the Ottoman military aviation effectively came to an end. At the time of the armistice, the Ottoman military aviation had around 100
pilots; 17 land-based
airplane
An airplane or aeroplane (informally plane) is a fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine, propeller, or rocket engine. Airplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations. The broad ...
companies (4 planes each); and 3
seaplane companies (4 planes each); totalling 80 aircraft.
Personnel
Recruitment
In 1389 the Ottomans introduced a system of military conscription. In times of need every town,
quarter, and village had the duty to present a fully equipped conscript at the recruiting office. The new force of irregular infantrymen, called ''
Azabs'', was used in a number of different ways. They supported the supplies to the front-line, they dug roads and built bridges. On rare occasions they were used as
cannon fodder to slow down an enemy advance. A branch of the Azabs were the
bashi-bazouk (başıbozuk). These specialized in close combat and were sometimes mounted. Recruited from the homeless, vagrants and criminals, they became notorious for their undisciplined brutality.
[mohammad nasiru din baba]
Training
Ottoman Military College
The
Ottoman Military College in Istanbul was the Ottoman Empire's two-year military staff college, which aimed to educate staff officers for the Ottoman Army.
Ottoman Military Academy
Marshal Ahmed Fevzi Pasha together with Mehmed Namık Pasha formed the academy in 1834 as the Mekteb-i Harbiye (Ottoman Turkish: lit. "War School"), and the first class of officers graduated in 1841. This foundation occurred in the context of military reforms within the Ottoman Empire, which recognized the need for more educated officers to modernize its army. The need for a new military order was part of the reforms of Sultan
Mahmud II (), continued by his son Sultan
Abdulmejid I ().
After the demise of the Ottoman Empire the school renamed itself as
Turkish Military Academy under the
Republic of Turkey
Imperial Naval Engineering School
The origin of the Naval Academy goes back to 1773, when Sultan
Mustafa III's Grand Vizier and Admiral
Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha founded a naval school under the name of "Naval Engineering at
Golden Horn Naval Shipyard".
François Baron de Tott, a French officer and advisor to the Ottoman military, was appointed for the establishment of a course to provide education on
plane geometry and
navigation. The course, attended also by civilian captains of the merchant marine, took place on board a
galleon anchored at
Kasimpaşa in Istanbul and lasted three months. The temporary course turned into a continuous education on land with the establishment of "Naval Mathematical College" in February 1776. With growing numbers of cadets, the college building at the naval shipyard was extended. On 22 October 1784 the college, renamed the "Imperial Naval Engineering School" ( ota, Mühendishâne-i Bahrî-i Hümâyûn), started its three-year education courses in the new building. From 1795 on, the training was divided into navigation and
cartography for
officers of the deck, and
naval architecture and
shipbuilding for
naval engineers. In 1838 the naval school moved into its new building in Kasımpaşa. With the beginning (1839) of the
reformation efforts, the school was renamed "Naval School" ( ota, Mekteb-i Bahriye) and continued to operate in Kasımpaşa for 12 years. Then it was relocated in 1850 to Heybeliada for the last time. During the
Second Constitutional Era
The Second Constitutional Era ( ota, ایكنجی مشروطیت دورى; tr, İkinci Meşrutiyet Devri) was the period of restored parliamentary rule in the Ottoman Empire between the 1908 Young Turk Revolution and the 1920 dissolution of the ...
, an upgraded education system was adapted in 1909 from the
Royal Naval Academy.
After the demise of the Ottoman Empire the school renamed itself as
Naval Academy (Turkey) under the
Republic of Turkey
Ranks
Classic Army
*
Aghas
Agha ( tr, ağa; ota, آغا; fa, آقا, āghā; "chief, master, lord") is an honorific title for a civilian or officer, or often part of such title. In the Ottoman times, some court functionaries and leaders of organizations like bazaar or ...
commanded the different branches of the military services, for example: "azap agha", "besli agha", "janissary agha", for the commanders of azaps, beslis, and janissaries, respectively. This designation was given to commanders of smaller military units, too, for instance the "bölük agha", and the "ocak agha", the commanders of a "bölük" (
company) and an "ocak" (troop) respectively.
*
Boluk-bashi was a commander of a "bölük", equivalent to the rank of
captain.
*
Çorbacı
Chorbaji (sometimes variously transliterated as tchorbadji, chorbadzhi,
tschorbadji) (Turkish: çorbacı) (English: Soup Seller) was a military rank of the corps of Janissaries in the Ottoman Empire, used for the commander of an ''orta'' (regiment ...
(Turkish for "soup server") was a commander of an orta (regiment), approximately corresponding to the rank of
colonel ( tr, Albay) today. In seafaring, the term was in use for the boss of a ship's crew, a role similar to that of
boatswain
A boatswain ( , ), bo's'n, bos'n, or bosun, also known as a deck boss, or a qualified member of the deck department, is the most senior rate of the deck department and is responsible for the components of a ship's hull. The boatswain supervis ...
.
Modern army
The system of ranks and insignia followed the patterns of the German Empire.
* Nefer (Private)
* Onbaşı (
Corporal)
* Çavuş (
Sergeant)
* Başçavuş (
Sergeant major)
*
Mülazım-ı Sani (
Second lieutenant)
*
Mülazım-ı Evvel (
First lieutenant)
* Yüzbaşı (Captain)
*
Kolağası (Senior Captain or Adjutant Major)
*
Binbaşı
A ''binbashi'', alternatively ''bimbashi'', (from tr, Binbaşı, "chief of a thousand", "chiliarch") is a major in the Turkish army, of which term originated in the Ottoman army. The title was also used for a major in the Khedivial Egyptian a ...
(
Major)
* Kaymakam (
Lieutenant colonel)
*
Miralay (
Colonel) – commander of a regiment (alay)
*
Mirliva
''Mirliva'' or ''Mîr-i livâ'' was a military rank of the Ottoman Army and Navy. It corresponds to a brigadier general (modern Turkish: ''Tuğgeneral'') in the modern Turkish Army. ''Mirliva'' is a compound word composed of ''Mir'' ( command ...
– commander of a brigade (liva)
*
Ferik – commander of a division (firka)
* Birinci Ferik – commander of a corps (Kolordu)
*
Müşir (
Field marshal) – commander of an army (Ordu)
Strength
Notes:
,
,
Awards and decorations
The
:Military awards and decorations of the Ottoman Empire collects the individual wards and decorations. The
Ottoman War Medal, better known as the Gallipoli Star, was instituted by the Sultan Mehmed Reshad V on 1 March 1915 for gallantry in battle. The
Iftikhar Sanayi Medal was first granted by Sultan Abdulhamid II.
Order of the Medjidie was instituted in 1851 by Sultan Abdülmecid I. The
Order of Osmanieh was created in January 1862 by Sultan Abdulaziz. This became the second highest order with the obsolescence of the
Nişan-i Iftikhar. The Order of Osmanieh ranks below the Nişan-i Imtiyaz.
See also
*
Ottoman military reforms
*
Turkish Armed Forces
*
Turkish Land Forces
*
Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire
Notes
References
Bibliography and further reading
*
* Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy. ''The Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present'' (1986 and other editions), passim and 1463–1464.
*
* Erickson, Edward J. ''
Ordered to die: a history of the Ottoman army in the First World War'' (2001)
* Hall, Richard C. ed. ''War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia'' (2014)
*
*
* Miller, William. ''The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801-1922'' (2nd ed 1927
online strong on foreign policy
*
* .
* Pálosfalvi, Tamás. ''From Nicopolis to Mohács: A History of Ottoman-Hungarian Warfare, 1389–1526'' (Brill, 2018)
*
* Topal, Ali E. "The effects of German Military Commission and Balkan wars on the reorganization and modernization of the Ottoman Army" (Naval Postgraduate School 2013
online* Uyar, Mesut, and Edward J. Erickson. ''A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk'' (Pleager Security International, 2009).
External links
by Lt. Col.
Edward J. Erickson
Turkey in World War I
{{DEFAULTSORT:Military of the Ottoman Empire
sv:Osmanska riket#Militär