Middle Babylonian period
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The Middle Babylonian period, also known as the Kassite period, in southern
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the F ...
is dated from c. 1595 BC to 1155 BC and began after the
Hittites The Hittites () were an Anatolian people who played an important role in establishing first a kingdom in Kussara (before 1750 BC), then the Kanesh or Nesha kingdom (c. 1750–1650 BC), and next an empire centered on Hattusa in north-centra ...
sacked the city of
Babylon ''Bābili(m)'' * sux, 𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠 * arc, 𐡁𐡁𐡋 ''Bāḇel'' * syc, ܒܒܠ ''Bāḇel'' * grc-gre, Βαβυλών ''Babylṓn'' * he, בָּבֶל ''Bāvel'' * peo, 𐎲𐎠𐎲𐎡𐎽𐎢 ''Bābiru'' * elx, 𒀸𒁀𒉿𒇷 ''Babi ...
. The
Kassites The Kassites () were people of the ancient Near East, who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire c. 1531 BC and until c. 1155 BC (short chronology). They gained control of Babylonia after the Hittite sack of Babylon ...
, whose dynasty is synonymous with the period, eventually assumed political control over the region and consolidated their power by subjugating the
Sealand dynasty The First Sealand dynasty, (URU.KÙKIWhere ŠEŠ-ḪA of King List A and ŠEŠ-KÙ-KI of King List B are read as URU.KÙ.KI) or the 2nd Dynasty of Babylon (although it was independent of Amorite-ruled Babylon), very speculatively c. 1732–1460 B ...
in 1475 BC. After the subjugation of the Sealand dynasty, the Kassites unified the region of
Babylonia Babylonia (; Akkadian: , ''māt Akkadī'') was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Syria). It emerged as an Amorite-ruled state c. ...
into a single political entity. At the height of the Middle Babylonian period, the Kassite kings were engaging in
commerce Commerce is the large-scale organized system of activities, functions, procedures and institutions directly and indirectly related to the exchange (buying and selling) of goods and services among two or more parties within local, regional, nation ...
,
trade Trade involves the transfer of goods and services from one person or entity to another, often in exchange for money. Economists refer to a system or network that allows trade as a market. An early form of trade, barter, saw the direct excha ...
, and organising diplomatic marriages with the kings of
Egypt Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediter ...
and other regional powers. However, after a period of gradual decline, the Middle Babylonian period collapsed with the fall of the Kassite dynasty in 1155 BC. The collapse came as a result of an
Assyrian Assyrian may refer to: * Assyrian people, the indigenous ethnic group of Mesopotamia. * Assyria, a major Mesopotamian kingdom and empire. ** Early Assyrian Period ** Old Assyrian Period ** Middle Assyrian Empire ** Neo-Assyrian Empire * Assyrian ...
invasion (1232 BC – 1225 BC), that temporarily displaced the Kassites from their rule over southern Mesopotamia. Finally, the Elamites conducted various raids and eventually invaded Babylonian in c. 1158 BC, which brought the Kassite dynasty and Middle Babylonian period to an end. There are however differing chronologies of the period proposed by some contemporary scholars, with some suggesting that the Middle Babylonian period only proceeded the collapse of the Kassite period of c. 1150 BC. While other scholars take the whole period of c. 1595 BC to 626 BC as constituting the Middle Babylonian period.


Beginning of period (c. 1595 BC)

Prior to 1595 BC, during the
Old Babylonian period The Old Babylonian Empire, or First Babylonian Empire, is dated to BC – BC, and comes after the end of Sumerian power with the destruction of the Third Dynasty of Ur, and the subsequent Isin-Larsa period. The chronology of the first dynasty ...
, the region of southern Mesopotamia was in a period of gradual decline and political uncertainty after the successors of
Hammurabi Hammurabi (Akkadian: ; ) was the sixth Amorite king of the Old Babylonian Empire, reigning from to BC. He was preceded by his father, Sin-Muballit, who abdicated due to failing health. During his reign, he conquered Elam and the city-states ...
were unable to maintain their kingdom. The successors had lost control of the lucrative trade routes between the northern and southern regions of Babylonia to the
First Sealand dynasty The First Sealand dynasty, (URU.KÙKIWhere ŠEŠ-ḪA of King List A and ŠEŠ-KÙ-KI of King List B are read as URU.KÙ.KI) or the 2nd Dynasty of Babylon (although it was independent of Amorite-ruled Babylon), very speculatively c. 1732–1460 B ...
which had detrimental economic ramifications. In c. 1595 BC, the Hittite king
Mursili I Mursili I (also known as Mursilis; sometimes transcribed as Murshili) was a king of the Hittites 1620-1590 BC, as per the middle chronology, the most accepted chronology in our times, (or alternatively c. 1556–1526 BC, short chronology), and w ...
invaded the region of southern Mesopotamia after having defeated the powerful neighbouring kingdom of
Aleppo )), is an adjective which means "white-colored mixed with black". , motto = , image_map = , mapsize = , map_caption = , image_map1 = ...
. The
Hittites The Hittites () were an Anatolian people who played an important role in establishing first a kingdom in Kussara (before 1750 BC), then the Kanesh or Nesha kingdom (c. 1750–1650 BC), and next an empire centered on Hattusa in north-centra ...
proceeded to sack the city of Babylon which ended the Hammurabi dynasty and Old Babylonian period. However, the Hittites chose not to subjugate Babylon or the surrounding regions and instead withdrew from the conquered city up the
Euphrates River The Euphrates () is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia ( ''the land between the rivers'') ...
to their homeland “ Hatti-land”. The Hittite's decision to invade southern Mesopotamia and sack the city of Babylon is subject to debate among contemporary historians. It is suggested that the successors of Hammurabi were either allied with Aleppo, or the sudden Hittite expansion indicates that their motives were "land, manpower, control of
rade Rade may refer to: * E De people, a people group in Southeast Asia also called "Rhade" or "Rade" * places in Lower-Saxony, Germany: ** Rade, Neu Wulmstorf, a village in the district of Harburg * places in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany: ** Rade, Stei ...
routes and access to valuable ore-deposits".


Dark age and Kassite unification (1595–1475 BC)

Following the Hittites withdrawal from Babylon, the region was plunged into further political turmoil. During this period, the
Kassites The Kassites () were people of the ancient Near East, who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire c. 1531 BC and until c. 1155 BC (short chronology). They gained control of Babylonia after the Hittite sack of Babylon ...
, who were a relatively unknown group of people in Babylonia, emerged as the preeminent authority. The precise events that led to the Kassites coming to power are uncertain, with contemporary scholars labelling this period as a dark-age given the lack of primary evidence. However, it is known that following the Hittite's withdrawal from southern Mesopotamia the First Sealand dynasty under
Gulkishar The First Sealand dynasty, (URU.KÙKIWhere ŠEŠ-ḪA of King List A and ŠEŠ-KÙ-KI of King List B are read as URU.KÙ.KI) or the 2nd Dynasty of Babylon (although it was independent of Amorite-ruled Babylon), very speculatively c. 1732–1460 BC ...
briefly captured and occupied the city of Babylon and the northern regions of Babylonia. The Kassites ended the Sealand's occupation of the captured territories and during the reign of King Ulamburiash I, they consolidated their authority in c. 1475 BC by subjugating the First Sealand dynasty, who now only occupied the southern coastal and swampland regions of Mesopotamia. By conquering the Sealand’s territories, the Kassites were able to reestablish the previously disrupted lucrative trade routes in the area. After the subjugation of the Sealand dynasty, the Kassites had successfully unified the whole of southern Babylonia into a centralised political entity and established the Kingdom of Babylonia (known in international correspondence as ''māt Karduniaš''). Prior to this point in Near Eastern history, southern Babylonia had not been controlled by one ruling entity. From then onward, the Kassite kings would adopt the title of ‘King of Babylonia’, and were referred by their regional neighbours as 'Kings of the land Karduniash', the later being the non-Kassite term for Babylonia.


Regional power (1415–1235 BC)

The unification of Babylonia as a single centralised political entity enabled the Kassites to establish a sustained period of stability and economic prosperity for southern Mesopotamia.


Dur-Kurigalzu

In particular, the Kassites utilised the period of economic prosperity to undertake construction and reconstruction projects all over Babylonia. Notably, during the reign of King Kurigalzu I, the Kassites relocated the administrative capital of the kingdom to
Dur-Kurigalzu Dur-Kurigalzu (modern ' in Baghdad Governorate, Iraq) was a city in southern Mesopotamia, near the confluence of the Tigris and Diyala rivers, about west of the center of Baghdad. It was founded by a Kassite king of Babylon, Kurigalzu I (died ...
(“Fortress of Kurigalzu”). Whilst the previous capital Babylon became the ceremonial and religious capital. The precise motives behind the Kassite's decision to construct a new capital are not known to contemporary historians. However, it is suggested that the city's location, where the
Euphrates The Euphrates () is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia ( ''the land between the rivers'') ...
and
Tigris The Tigris () is the easternmost of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian and Arabian Deserts, and empties into the ...
rivers run closest indicates it was either to protect the lucrative trade routes in the region or to safeguard the kingdom against its
imperialistic Imperialism is the state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas, often through employing hard power (economic ...
neighbours.


Foreign relations

Foreign relations between the Kassites and their regional neighbours are recorded in the
Amarna letters The Amarna letters (; sometimes referred to as the Amarna correspondence or Amarna tablets, and cited with the abbreviation EA, for "El Amarna") are an archive, written on clay tablets, primarily consisting of diplomatic correspondence between t ...
, which are
cuneiform Cuneiform is a logo-syllabic script that was used to write several languages of the Ancient Middle East. The script was in active use from the early Bronze Age until the beginning of the Common Era. It is named for the characteristic wedge-sha ...
tablets that were used for correspondence between the kings of Egypt and the Kassite kings, in particular the reigns of Kadashman-Enlil I (1375–1360 BC) and
Burnaburiash II Burna-Buriaš II, rendered in cuneiform as ''Bur-na-'' or ''Bur-ra-Bu-ri-ia-aš'' in royal inscriptions and letters, and meaning ''servant'' or ''protégé of the Lord of the lands'' in the Kassite language, where Buriaš (, dbu-ri-ia-aš₂) is a ...
(1359–1333 BC). The tablets outlined politically advantageous marriages and the “exchange of substantial bridal gifts and dowries”. Moreover, the letters outlined trade between the regional powers. For example, the Kassites frequently traded with Egypt and were known for their “
horses The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million yea ...
,
chariots A chariot is a type of cart driven by a charioteer, usually using horses to provide rapid motive power. The oldest known chariots have been found in burials of the Sintashta culture in modern-day Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia, dated to c. 2000  ...
and
lapis lazuli Lapis lazuli (; ), or lapis for short, is a deep-blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color. As early as the 7th millennium BC, lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mines, ...
and precious stones,
bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus, or metalloids such ...
,
silver Silver is a chemical element with the Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂erǵ-, ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, whi ...
, and
oil An oil is any nonpolar chemical substance that is composed primarily of hydrocarbons and is hydrophobic (does not mix with water) & lipophilic (mixes with other oils). Oils are usually flammable and surface active. Most oils are unsaturated ...
”.   The Amarna letters also outline an ancient Near Eastern political partnership between the preeminent powers of the fourteenth century BC called the “Great Powers Club”. This political partnership included states such as Egypt, Hatti,
Mittani Mitanni (; Hittite cuneiform ; ''Mittani'' '), c. 1550–1260 BC, earlier called Ḫabigalbat in old Babylonian texts, c. 1600 BC; Hanigalbat or Hani-Rabbat (''Hanikalbat'', ''Khanigalbat'', cuneiform ') in Assyrian records, or '' Naharin'' i ...
and
Assyria Assyria (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , romanized: ''māt Aššur''; syc, ܐܬܘܪ, ʾāthor) was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization which existed as a city-state at times controlling regional territories in the indigenous lands of the A ...
. The exact purpose for the establishment of the Great Powers Club is unclear, however its function can be broadly understood as a regional partnership between neighbouring powers who had established norms for communication and desired to “regulate peace and war, trade and marriages, boarder disputes and exchange of messages”. However, the power distribution within the partnership was not equal among all of its members. For example, princesses from Egypt marrying Asiatic kings constituted an ideological issue for the Egyptians and was a rarity. Whilst conversely, Asiatic princesses were commonly wedded to Egyptian royalty and nobility however, they were not considered as the primary partner and were instead part of the man’s
harem Harem (Persian: حرمسرا ''haramsarā'', ar, حَرِيمٌ ''ḥarīm'', "a sacred inviolable place; harem; female members of the family") refers to domestic spaces that are reserved for the women of the house in a Muslim family. A hare ...
. Relations between the regional partners began to gradually decline in the twelfth century BC during the reigns of the Egyptian
pharaohs Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian: ''pr ꜥꜣ''; cop, , Pǝrro; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') is the vernacular term often used by modern authors for the kings of ancient Egypt who ruled as monarchs from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BC) until the ann ...
Amenophis III Amenhotep III ( egy, jmn-ḥtp(.w), ''Amānəḥūtpū'' , "Amun is Satisfied"; Hellenized as Amenophis III), also known as Amenhotep the Magnificent or Amenhotep the Great, was the ninth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. According to different ...
(1391–1353 BC) and
Akhenaton Akhenaten (pronounced ), also spelled Echnaton, Akhenaton, ( egy, ꜣḫ-n-jtn ''ʾŪḫə-nə-yātəy'', , meaning "Effective for the Aten"), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh reigning or 1351–1334 BC, the tenth ruler of the Eighteenth Dy ...
(1353–1336 BC). In this period, the pharaohs became less concerned with the affairs of their Asiatic neighbours which led to the breakdown of the partnerships.


End of period (1225–1155 BC)

The fall of the Kassite dynasty and end of Middle Babylonian period came in c. 1155 BC after continuous raids and invasions by their regional neighbours, the Assyrians and Elamites.  


Assyrians subjugate Babylonia

During the reign of the Assyrian king
Tukulti-Ninurta I Tukulti-Ninurta I (meaning: "my trust is in he warrior god Ninurta"; reigned 1243–1207 BC) was a king of Assyria during the Middle Assyrian Empire. He is known as the first king to use the title "King of Kings". Biography Tukulti-Ninurta I s ...
(1233–1197 BC), Babylonia was invaded and the Kassite king Kashtiliashu IV (1232–1225 BC) was overthrown. Tukulti-Ninurta subjugated the region through a puppet-regime and removed the statue of Babylon’s patron god
Marduk Marduk (Cuneiform: dAMAR.UTU; Sumerian: ''amar utu.k'' "calf of the sun; solar calf"; ) was a god from ancient Mesopotamia and patron deity of the city of Babylon. When Babylon became the political center of the Euphrates valley in the time of ...
and took it to Assyria. The neighbouring Elamites, led by the king Kidin-Hudrudiš (also known as Kidin-Hutran), later on invaded Babylonia and sacked the cities of
Nippur Nippur (Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Nibru'', often logogram, logographically recorded as , EN.LÍLKI, "Enlil City;"The Cambridge Ancient History: Prolegomena & Prehistory': Vol. 1, Part 1. Accessed 15 Dec 2010. Akkadian language, Akkadian: '' ...
,
Isin Isin (, modern Arabic: Ishan al-Bahriyat) is an archaeological site in Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate, Iraq. Excavations have shown that it was an important city-state in the past. History of archaeological research Ishan al-Bahriyat was visited b ...
, Marad and Der, which resulted in discontentment toward the Assyrian regime. Eventually, revolts in Babylonia and Assyria brought Tukulti-Ninurta’s occupation of Babylonia to an end. Following the end of the Assyrian subjugation and puppet-regime, Adad-suma-usur, a descendent of the previous Kassite ruler Kashtiliashu IV regained power in southern Babylonian for the Kassites.  


Assyrian and Elamite invasions

The eventual collapse of the Kassite dynasty, and end of the Middle Babylonian period, came in two successive invasions by the Assyrians and Elamites. In 1158 BC the Assyrians invaded Babylonia, which was subsequently followed in the same year by an Elamite invasion. The last king of the Kassite dynasty was
Enlil-nadin-ahi Enlil-nādin-aḫe,Written contemporarily as dEN.LÍL-MU-ŠEŠ. “Enlil gives a brother,”CAD a, aḫu, p. 195. or ''Enlil-šuma-uṣur'', “Enlil protect the son,”CAD s3, šumu, p. 295. depending on the reading of –MU- ŠEŠ, ca. 1157—11 ...
, who reigned for a period of three years prior to being overthrown and captured by the Elamites. The Elamites chose not to subjugate Babylonian and instead the non-Kassite, Second Dynasty of Isin took power in the region.


Chronology debate

There are various alternative chronologies proposed by contemporary historians as to the exact dating of the Middle Babylonian period. This is in part because of the Assyrian control of Babylonia being unstable, and the continued similarities in material culture. Some historians designate the Middle Babylonian period as having proceeded the collapse of the Kassite period (c. 1150 BC) and having ended in 626 BC, with the subsequent emergence of the
Neo-Babylonian Empire The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire, historically known as the Chaldean Empire, was the last polity ruled by monarchs native to Mesopotamia. Beginning with the coronation of Nabopolassar as the List of kings of Babylon, King of B ...
. While other historians use 'Middle Babylonian' and 'post-Kassite' as names for distinct periods, with the Middle Babylonian period containing the Kassite dynasty (c. 1595–1155 BC), and sometimes the later
Second Dynasty of Isin The king of Babylon ( Akkadian: ''šakkanakki Bābili'', later also ''šar Bābili'') was the ruler of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Babylon and its kingdom, Babylonia, which existed as an independent realm from the 19th century BC to its fall ...
(c. 1153–1022 BC), with the proceeding dynasties being grouped under the 'post-Kassite' period. Other interpretations by contemporary historians designate the entire period between the end of the
Old Babylonian period The Old Babylonian Empire, or First Babylonian Empire, is dated to BC – BC, and comes after the end of Sumerian power with the destruction of the Third Dynasty of Ur, and the subsequent Isin-Larsa period. The chronology of the first dynasty ...
in c. 1595 BC and the rise of Neo-Babylonian Empire c. 626 BC as constituting the 'Middle Babylonian' period.


Middle Babylonian period kings (1530–1155 BC)

The King List A tablet that contains the names of the rulers from the First Dynasty (c. 1894 BC) to the Neo-Assyrian Empire (600 BC) is damaged. Therefore, the precise chronology and names for some of the rulers is uncertain or unknown to contemporary historians.


References

{{AncientNearEast-stub Babylonia Ancient Near East Bronze Age Asia Historical eras