Animal magnetism, also known as mesmerism, was a protoscientific theory developed by German doctor

Franz Mesmer Franz Anton Mesmer (; ; 23 May 1734 – 5 March 1815) was a German physician with an interest in astronomy. He theorised the existence of a natural energy transference occurring between all animated and inanimate objects; this he called "anim ...

in the 18th century in relation to what he claimed to be an invisible natural force (''Lebensmagnetismus'') possessed by all living things, including humans, animals, and vegetables. He claimed that the force could have physical effects, including healing. He tried persistently, without success, to achieve a wider scientific recognition of his ideas.Wolfart, Karl Christian; Friedrich Anton Mesmer. ''Mesmerismus: Oder, System der Wechselwirkungen, Theorie und Anwendung des thierischen Magnetismus als die allgemeine Heilkunde zur Erhaltung des Menschen'' (in German, facsimile of the 1811 edition). Cambridge University Press, 2011. . Foreword. The vitalist theory attracted numerous followers in Europe and the United States and was popular into the 19th century. Practitioners were often known as magnetizers rather than mesmerists. It had an important influence in medicine for about 75 years from its beginnings in 1779, and continued to have some influence for another 50 years. Hundreds of books were written on the subject between 1766 and 1925, but it is no longer practiced today except as a form of

alternative medicine Alternative medicine is any practice that aims to achieve the healing effects of medicine despite lacking biological plausibility, testability, repeatability, or evidence from clinical trials. Complementary medicine (CM), complementary and alt ...

in some places.Adam Crabtree ''Animal Magnetism, Early Hypnotism, and Psychical Research, 1766–1925 – An Annotated Bibliography''

Etymology and definitions

"Magnetizer"

The terms "magnetizer" and "mesmerizer" have been applied to people who study and practice animal magnetism.Dictionnaire Notre Famille, (1987)
''Magnetiseur''
notrefamille.com. Accessed 19 August 2015 These terms have been distinguished from "mesmerist" and "magnetist", which are regarded as denoting those who study animal magnetism without being practitioners; Hector Durville, ''Theory and Animal Magnetism procedures'', Rio de Jan ed. Léon Denis, 2012 . and from "hypnotist", someone who practises hypnosis. The etymology of the word ''magnetizer'' comes from the French "''magnétiseur''" ("practicing the methods of mesmerism"), which in turn is derived from the French verb ''magnétiser''. The term refers to an individual who has the power to manipulate the "magnetic fluid" with effects upon other people present that were regarded as analogous to magnetic effects. This sense of the term is found, for example, in the expression of

Antoine Joseph Gorsas Antoine Joseph Gorsas (24 March 17527 October 1793) was a French publicist and politician. Biography Gorsas was born at Limoges (Haute-Vienne), the son of a shoemaker. He established himself as a private tutor in Paris, and presently set up a sch ...

: "The magnetizer is the imam of vital energy".

"Mesmerism"

A tendency emerged amongst British magnetizers to call their clinical techniques "mesmerism"; they wanted to distance themselves from the theoretical orientation of animal magnetism that was based on the concept of "magnetic fluid". At the time, some magnetizers attempted to channel what they thought was a magnetic "fluid", and sometimes they attempted this with a " laying on of hands". Reported effects included various feelings: intense heat, trembling, trances, and seizures. Many practitioners took a scientific approach, such as Joseph Philippe François Deleuze (1753–1835), a French physician, anatomist, gynecologist, and physicist. One of his pupils was Théodore Léger (1799–1853), who wrote that the label "mesmerism" was "most improper".Léger, 1846, p.14. Noting that, by 1846, the term " galvanism" had been replaced by "electricity", Léger wrote that year:

Royal Commission

In 1784 two French Royal Commissions appointed by Louis XVI studied Mesmer's magnetic fluid theory to try to establish it by scientific evidence.Orsucci, 2009, p.66 The commission of the Academy of Sciences included Majault,

Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin ( April 17, 1790) was an American polymath who was active as a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher, and political philosopher. Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021 Among the leading intel ...

Jean Sylvain Bailly Jean Sylvain Bailly (; 15 September 1736 – 12 November 1793) was a French astronomer, mathematician, freemason, and political leader of the early part of the French Revolution. He presided over the Tennis Court Oath, served as the mayor of Par ...

, Jean-Baptiste Le Roy, Sallin,

Jean Darcet Jean d'Arcet or Jean Darcet (7 September 1724 – 12 February 1801) was a French chemist, and director of the porcelain works at Sèvres. He was one of the first to manufacture porcelain in France. Darcet was probably born in Doazit, where hi ...

, de Borey,

Joseph-Ignace Guillotin Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (; 28 May 1738 – 26 March 1814) was a French physician, politician, and freemason who proposed on 10 October 1789 the use of a device to carry out death penalties in France, as a less painful method of execution than ...

, and

Antoine Lavoisier Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier ( , ; ; 26 August 17438 May 1794),
CNRS (

Caille, Mauduyt de la Varenne, Andry, and

Antoine Laurent de Jussieu Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (; 12 April 1748 – 17 September 1836) was a French botanist, notable as the first to publish a natural classification of flowering plants; much of his system remains in use today. His classification was based on an e ...

. Whilst the commission agreed that the cures claimed by Mesmer were indeed cures, it also concluded there was no evidence of the existence of his "magnetic fluid", and that its effects derived from either the imaginations of its subjects or

charlatan A charlatan (also called a swindler or mountebank) is a person practicing quackery or a similar confidence trick in order to obtain money, power, fame, or other advantages through pretense or deception. Synonyms for ''charlatan'' include ''shy ...

ry.

Royal Academy investigation

A generation later another investigating committee, appointed by a majority vote in 1826 in The Royal Academy of Medicine in Paris, studied the effects and clinical potentials of the mesmeric procedure - without trying to establish the physical nature of any magnetic fluidum. The report says: Among the conclusions were:

Mesmerism and hypnotism

Faria and "oriental hypnosis"

Abbé Faria Abbé Faria (), or Abbé (Abbot) (born José Custódio de Faria; 31 May 1756 – 20 September 1819), was a Luso-Goan Catholic monk who was one of the pioneers of the scientific study of hypnotism, following on from the work of Franz Mesmer. ...

was one of the disciples of Franz Anton Mesmer who continued with Mesmer's work following the conclusions of the Royal Commission. In the early 19th century, Abbé Faria is said to have introduced oriental hypnosis to Paris and to have conducted experiments to prove that "no special force was necessary for the production of the mesmeric phenomena such as the trance, but that the determining cause lay within the subject himself"—in other words, that it worked purely by the power of suggestion.Hull, Clark L. "Hypnotism in Scientific Perspective", ''The Scientific Monthly'' 29.2 (1929): p. 156.

Braid and "hypnotism"

Hypnotism Hypnosis is a human condition involving focused attention (the selective attention/selective inattention hypothesis, SASI), reduced peripheral awareness, and an enhanced capacity to respond to suggestion.In 2015, the American Psychologic ...

, a designation coined by the Scottish surgeon, James Braid, originates in Braid's response to an 1841 exhibition of "animal magnetism", by

Charles Lafontaine Charles Léonard Lafontaine (27 March 1803 – 13 August 1892) was a celebrated French " public magnetic demonstrator", who also "had an interest in animal magnetism as an agent for curing or alleviating illnesses". Family Charles Lafontaine ...

, in Manchester. Writing in 1851, Braid was adamant that, in the absence of the sorts of "higher phenomena" reportedly produced by the mesmerists,

and in contra-distinction to the ''Transcendental'' .e., ''metaphysical''''Mesmerism'' of the Mesmerists … llegedlyinduced through the transmission of an occult influence from he body of the operator to that of the subject,''Hypnotism'', y whichI mean a peculiar condition of the nervous system, into which it can be thrown by artificial contrivance … theoretical position that is entirelyconsistent with generally admitted principles in physiological and psychological science ouldtherefore
e most aptly E, or e, is the fifth letter and the second vowel letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''e'' (pronounced ); plura ...
designated ''Rational Mesmerism''.

"Mesmerism" and "hypnotism"

While there is a great range of theories and practices collectively denoted ''mesmerism'', research has clearly identified that there are substantial and significant differences between "mesmerism" and "hypnotism" however they may be defined.

Vital fluid and animal magnetism

A 1791 London publication explains Mesmer's theory of the vital fluid:

Modern philosophy has admitted a plenum or universal principle of fluid matter, which occupies all space; and that as all bodies moving in the world, abound with pores, this fluid matter introduces itself through the interstices and returns backwards and forwards, flowing through one body by the currents which issue therefrom to another, as in a magnet, which produces that phenomenon which we call Animal Magnetism. This fluid consists of fire, air and spirit, and like all other fluids tends to an equilibrium, therefore it is easy to conceive how the efforts which the bodies make towards each other produce animal electricity, which in fact is no more than the effect produced between two bodies, one of which has more motion than the other; a phenomenon serving to prove that the body which has most motion communicates it to the other, until the medium of motion becomes an equilibrium between the two bodies, and then this equality of motion produces animal electricity.

According to an anonymous writer of a series of letters published by editor John Pearson in 1790, animal magnetism can cause a wide range of effects ranging from vomiting to what is termed the "crisis". The purpose of the treatment (inducing the "crisis") was to shock the body into convulsion in order to remove obstructions in the humoral system that were causing sicknesses. Furthermore, this anonymous supporter of the animal magnetism theory purported that the "crisis" created two effects: first, a state in which the " ndividual who iscompletely reduced under Magnetic influence, although he should seem to be possessed of his senses, yet he ceases to be an accountable creature", and a second "remarkable" state, which would be "conferred upon the agnetizedsubject …

amely Amely was an American rock band from Orlando, Florida, United States, formed in 2008. The band comprised four members; Petie Pizarro (Vocals/Guitar), Brandon Walden (Guitar), Patrick Ridgen (Bass) and Nate Parsell (Drums). The sound of the band ...

that of perfect and unobstructed vision … in other words, all opacity is removed, and every object becomes luminous and transparent". A patient under crisis was believed to be able to see through the body and find the cause of illness, either in themselves or in other patients. The Marquis of Puységur's miraculous healing of a young man named Victor in 1784 was attributed to, and used as evidence in support of, this "crisis" treatment. The Marquis was allegedly able to hypnotize Victor and, while hypnotized, Victor was said to have been able to speak articulately and diagnose his own sickness. Jacob Melo discusses in his books some mechanisms by which the perceived effects of animal magnetism have been claimed to operate.

Skepticism in the Romantic Era

The study of animal magnetism spurred the creation of the Societies of Harmony in France, where members paid to join and learn the practice of magnetism. Doctor John Bell was a member of the Philosophical Harmonic Society of Paris, and was certified by the society to lecture and teach on animal magnetism in England. The existence of the societies transformed animal magnetism into a secretive art, where its practitioners and lecturers did not reveal the techniques of the practice based on the society members that have paid for instruction, veiling the idea that it was unfair to reveal the practice to others for free. Although the heightened secrecy of the practice contributed to the skepticism about it, many supporters and practitioners of animal magnetism touted the ease and possibility for everyone to acquire the skills to perform its techniques. Popularization of animal magnetism was denounced and ridiculed by newspaper journals and theatre during the Romantic Era. Many deemed animal magnetism to be nothing more than a theatrical falsity or quackery. In a 1790 publication, an editor presented a series of letters written by an avid supporter of animal magnetism and included his own thoughts in an appendix stating: "No fanatics ever divulged notions more wild and extravagant; no impudent empiric ever retailed promises more preposterous, or histories of cures more devoid of reality, than the tribe of magnetisers". The novelist and playwright Elizabeth Inchbald wrote the farce ''Animal Magnetism'' in the late 1780s. The plot revolved around multiple love triangles and the absurdity of animal magnetism. The following passage mocks the medical prowess of those qualified only as mesmerists:

Doctor: They have refused to grant me a diploma—forbid me to practice as a physician, and all because I don't know a parcel of insignificant words; but exercise my profession according to the rules of reason and nature; Is it not natural to die, then if a dozen or two of my patients have died under my hands, is not that natural? ...

Although the doctor's obsession with the use of animal magnetism, not merely to cure but to force his ward to fall in love with him, made for a humorous storyline, Inchbald’s light-hearted play commented on what society perceived as threats posed by the practice. De Mainanduc brought animal magnetism to England in 1787 and promulgated it into the social arena. In 1785, he had published proposals to the ladies of Britain to establish a "hygean society" or society of health, by which they would pay to join and enjoy his treatments. As both popularity and skepticism increased, many became convinced that animal magnetism could lead to sexual exploitation of women. Not only did the practice involve close personal contact via the waving of hands over the body, but people were concerned that the animal magnetists could hypnotize women and direct them at will.

Political influence

The French revolution catalyzed existing internal political friction in Britain in the 1790s; a few political radicals used animal magnetism as more than just a moral threat but also a political threat. Among many lectures warning society against government oppression, Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote:

William Pitt, the great political Animal Magnetist, ... has most foully worked on the diseased fancy of Englishmen ... thrown the nation into a feverish slumber, and is now bringing it to a crisis which may convulse mortality!

Major politicians and people in power were accused by radicals of practising animal magnetism on the general population. In his article "Under the Influence: Mesmerism in England", Roy Porter notes that James Tilly Matthews suggested that the French were infiltrating England via animal magnetism. Matthews believed that "magnetic spies" would invade England and bring it under subjection by transmitting waves of animal magnetism to subdue the government and people. Such an invasion from foreign influences was perceived as a radical threat.

Mesmerism and spiritual healing practices

Some claim that mesmerism has been used in many parts of the world as an intervention to treat profound illness in humans, as well as in the treatment of disease in domestic, farm, circus, and zoo animals. During the Romantic period, mesmerism produced enthusiasm and inspired horror in the spiritual and religious context. Though discredited as a medical practice, mesmerism created a venue for spiritual healing. Some animal magnetists advertised their practices by stressing the "spiritual rather than physical benefits to be gained from animal magnetism" and were able to gather a good clientele from among the spiritually inspired population. Some researchers, including

Johann Peter Lange Johann Peter Lange (; 10 April 1802 in Sonnborn (now a part of Wuppertal) – 9 July 1884, Bonn), was a German Calvinist theologian of peasant origin. Biography He was born at Sonnborn near Elberfeld, and studied theology at Bonn (from 1822) ...

LANGE, Johann Peter
''The Life of The Lord Jesus Christ: A Complete Critical Examination of the Origin, Contents and Connection of the Gospels, Volume 1''
Ed. Smith, English and Company, 1872 and

Allan Kardec Allan Kardec () is the pen name of the French educator, translator, and author Hippolyte Léon Denizard Rivail (; 3 October 1804 – 31 March 1869). He is the author of the five books known as the Spiritist Codification, and the founder of S ...

,KARDEC, Allan, '' Genesis '' – FEB 53rd Ed – Cap.XV – Item 2 – pag.274 suggested that Jesus was the greatest of all magnetizers, and that the source of his miracles was animal magnetism. Other writers, such as

John Campbell Colquhoun John Campbell Colquhoun (23 January 1803 – 17 April 1870) was a Scottish writer and politician. Life Colquhoun was born in Edinburgh on 23 January 1803, son of Archibald Colquhoun and Mary Ann, daughter of the Rev. William Erskine, episcopa ...

and Mary Baker Eddy, denounced the comparison. Mary Baker Eddy went so far as to claim animal magnetism "lead to moral and to physical death."

Contemporary development

Sporadic research into animal magnetism was conducted in the 20th century, and the results published; for example, Bernard Grad wrote a number of papers related to his observations of "a single, reputed healer, ungarianOskar Estebany" on the subject.

Professional magnetizers

In the Classical era of animal magnetism, the late 17th century to the mid-19th century, there were professional magnetizers,Franklin Rausky, ''Mesmer ou la révolution thérapeutique'' ("Mesmer, or the therapeutic revolution"), Paris, 1977 whose techniques were described by authors of the time as particularly effective. Their method was to spend prolonged periods "magnetizing" their customers directly or through "mesmeric magnets". It was observed that in some conditions, certain mesmerizers were more likely to achieve the result than others, regardless of their degree of knowledge.

In literature

* Ursule Mirouët, an 1841 novel by

Honoré de Balzac Honoré de Balzac ( , more commonly , ; born Honoré Balzac;Jean-Louis Dega, La vie prodigieuse de Bernard-François Balssa, père d'Honoré de Balzac : Aux sources historiques de La Comédie humaine, Rodez, Subervie, 1998, 665 p. 20 May 179 ...

, features a character who converts to Christianity in part because of an experience with animal magnetism. * Edgar Allan Poe's 1845 short story " The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar" is based on the premise that a person could be mesmerised at the moment of death. Poe published the work without explicitly stating that it was fictional, leading some readers to believe it was a true account. *

Aldous Huxley Aldous Leonard Huxley (26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963) was an English writer and philosopher. He wrote nearly 50 books, both novels and non-fiction works, as well as wide-ranging essays, narratives, and poems. Born into the prominent Huxley ...

's 1962 novel " Island". References Professor

John Elliotson John Elliotson (29 October 1791 – 29 July 1868), M.D. (Edinburgh, 1810), M.D.(Oxford, 1821), F.R.C.P.(London, 1822), F.R.S. (1829), professor of the principles and practice of medicine at University College London (1832), senior physician to ...

and animal magnetism as a way to perform painless surgery without anaesthesia. Mesmerism/Magnestism/Hypnosis are themes running throughout the book. Used primarily as a tool to enhance independent thought within the population. *

Axel Munthe Axel Martin Fredrik Munthe (31 October 1857 – 11 February 1949) was a Swedish-born medical doctor and psychiatrist, best known as the author of '' The Story of San Michele'', an autobiographical account of his life and work. He spoke several l ...

's 1929 book of memoirs " The Story of San Michele". A lightly embellished biography of Dr Axel Munthe and his history around owning

Villa San Michele The Villa San Michele was built about the end of the 19th century on the isle of Capri, Italy, by the Swedish physician and author Axel Munthe. Description The villa's gardens have panoramic views of the town of Capri and its harbour, the Sorr ...

in Ana Capri; with a series of completely unsubstantiated fanciful references to Charcot and mesmerism in chapter XIX, "Hypnotism".

References

General references

* * Barth, George H., ''The Mesmerist's Manual'', London (1851), Reprint, . * Bloch, G., ''Mesmerism: A Translation of the Original Scientific and Medical Writings of F.A. Mesmer'', William Kaufmann, Inc., (Los Altos), 1980.
Braid, J., ''Observations on Trance; or, Human Hybernation'', John Churchill, (London), 1850.
* Buranelli, V., ''The Wizard from Vienna: Franz Anton Mesmer'', Coward, McCann & Geoghegan., (New York), 1975. * Carrer, L., ''Jose Custodio de Faria: Hypnotist, Priest and Revolutionary'', Trafford, (Victoria), 2004. * Chenevix, R., "On Mesmerism, Improperly Denominated Animal Magnetism", ''London Medical and Physical Journal''
Vol.61, No.361, (March 1829), pp. 219–230; No.364, (June 1829), pp. 491–501Vol.62, No.366, (August 1829), pp. 114–125; No.367, (September 1829), pp. 210–220; No.368, (October 1829), pp. 315–324.
* Chester, R.J. (1982), ''Hypnotism in East and West: Twenty Hypnotic Methods'', London, The Octagon Press. * Colquhoun, John Campbell
Isis Revelata: An Inquiry Into the Origin, Progress, and Present State of Animal Magnetism. Vol. 2
1836. Reprint. London: Forgotten Books * * Darnton, R., ''Mesmerism, and the End of the Enlightenment in France'', Harvard University Press, (Cambridge), 1968. * Deleuz
''Practical Instruction in Animal Magnetism''
(1843)
Donaldson, I.M.L., "Mesmer's 1780 Proposal for a Controlled Trial to Test his Method of Treatment Using 'Animal Magnetism'", ''Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine'', Vol.98, No.12, (December 2005), pp. 572–575.
* Edmonston, W.E. (1986), ''The Induction of Hypnosis'', New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. * Engledue, W.C., ''Cerebral Physiology and Materialism, With the Result of the Application of Animal Magnetism to the Cerebral Organs: An Address Delivered to the Phrenological Association in London, June 20th, 1842, by W.C. Engledue, M.D. with a Letter from Dr. Elliotson on Mesmeric Phrenology and Materialism'', H. Ballière, (London), 1842. * Fulford, T., "Conducting the Vital Fluid: The Politics and Poetics of Mesmerism in the 1790s", ''Studies in Romanticism'', Vol.43, No.1, (Spring 2004), pp. 57–78. * * Gauld, A. (1988), "Reflections on Mesmeric Analgesia", ''British Journal of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis'', (5), 17-24. * * Gibson, H.B., & Heap, M. (1991), ''Hypnosis in Therapy'', Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. * Goldsmith, M., ''Franz Anton Mesmer: A History of Mesmerism'', Doubleday, Doran & Co., (New York), 1934. * Hallaji, Jafar, "Hypnotherapeutic Techniques in a Central Asian Community", ''International Journal of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis'', Vol.10, No.4, (October 1962), pp. 271–274.
Harte, R., ''Hypnotism and the Doctors, Volume I: Animal Magnetism: Mesmer/De Puysegur'', L.N. Fowler & Co., (London), 1902

Harte, R., ''Hypnotism and the Doctors, Volume II: The Second Commission; Dupotet And Lafontaine; The English School; Braid's Hypnotism; Statuvolism; Pathetism; Electro-Biology'', L.N. Fowler & Co., (London), 1903
* Kaplan, F., ""The Mesmeric Mania": The Early Victorians and Animal Magnetism", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', Vol.35, No.4, (October–December 1974), pp. 691–702. * Kaplan, F., ''Dickens and Mesmerism: The Hidden Springs of Fiction'', Princeton University Press, (Princeton), 1975. * Kaplan, F., ''John Elliotson on Mesmerism'', Da Capo Press, (New York), 1982. * Leger, T. ic ''Animal Magnetism; or, Psycodunamy'', D. Appleton, (New York), 1846 Théodore_Léger_(1799–1853).html" ;"title=".B. author is Théodore Léger (1799–1853)">.B. author is Théodore Léger (1799–1853) * * MacHovec, F.J., "Hypnosis Before Mesmer", ''American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis'', Vol.17, No.4, (April 1975), pp. 215–220. * MacHovec, F.J., "The Cult of Asklipios", ''American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis'', Vol.22, No.2, (October 1979), pp. 85–90. * Mancini, S. & Vale, J., "Animal Magnetism and Psychic Sciences, 1784-1935: The Rediscovery of a Lost Continent", ''Diogenes'', Vol.48, No.2, (1 June 2000), pp. 94–101. * McGarry, J., "Mesmerism vs. Hypnosis: A Comparison of Relaxation Responses and Evaluation of Mental and Psychophysiological Outcomes", '' Australian Journal of Clinical Hypnotherapy & Hypnosis'', Vol.8, No.1, (March 1987), pp. 7–36. * Moore, W., ''The Mesmerist: The Society Doctor Who Held Victorian London Spellbound'', Weidenfeld & Nicolson, (London), 2017. * Orsucci, Franco., "Mind force : on human attractions", World Scientific., (London) 2009 * Parssinen, T.M., "Mesmeric Performers", ''Victorian Studies'', Vol.21, No.1, (Autumn 1977), pp. 87–104. * Pattie, F.A., "Mesmer's Medical Dissertation and Its Debt to Mead's ''De Imperio Solis ac Lunae''", ''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences'', Vol.11, (July 1956), pp. 275–287. * Pattie, F.A., ''Mesmer and Animal Magnetism: A Chapter in the History of Medicine'', Edmonston Publishing, (Hamilton), 1994.
Pearson, John (ed.), ''A Plain and Rational Account of the Nature and Effects of Animal Magnetism: In a Series of letters. With Notes and an Appendix'', W. and J. Stratford, (London), 1790
*
Podmore, F. (1909), ''Mesmerism and Christian Science: A Short History of Mental Healing'', Philadelphia, PA: George W. Jacobs & Company.
* Porter, R., "'Under the Influence' Mesmerism in England", ''History Today'', Vol.35, No.9, (September 1985), pp. 22–29. * Pulos, L., "Mesmerism Revisited: The Effectiveness of Esdaile’s Techniques in the Production of Deep Hypnosis and Total Body Hypnoanaesthesia", ''American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis'', Vol.22, No.4, (April 1980), pp. 206–211. * Rosen, G., "Mesmerism and Surgery: A Strange Chapter in the History of Anesthesia", ''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences'', Vol.1, No.4, (October 1946), pp. 527–550. * Sutton, G., "Electric Medicine and Mesmerism", ''Isis'', Vol.72, No.3, (September 1981), pp. 375–392. * * Völgyesi, F. (1938). "Eigene Hypnoseversuche mit gefangenen wilden Tieren ��(The author’s) hypnotic experiments with captive wild animals’, pp.90-101 in F. Völgyesi, ''Menschen- und Tierhypnose'' ��Human and Animal Hypnosis’ Zürich & Leipzig: Orell Füssli. * Völgyesi, F.A. (1966), ''Hypnosis of Man and Animals'', London: Baillière, Tindall & Cassell.
Wilson, J. (1839), ''Trials of Animal Magnetism on the Brute Creation'', London: Sherwood, Gilbert, and Piper.
* Winter, A., ''Mesmerized: Powers of Mind in Victorian Britain'', The University of Chicago Press, (Chicago), 1998. *''Wonders and mysteries of animal magnetism displayed; or the history, art, practice, and progress of that useful science, from its first rise in the city of Paris, to the present time. With several Curious Cases and new Anecdotes of the Principal Professors''. Eighteenth Century Collections Online. London (1791) * Wyckoff, J.

975 Year 975 ( CMLXXV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events By place Byzantine Empire * Arab–Byzantine War: Emperor John I raids Mesopotamia and invades Syria, using ...

''Franz Anton Mesmer: Between God and Devil'', Prentice-Hall, (Englewood Cliffs), 1975. * Yeates, L.B. (2013)
''James Braid: Surgeon, Gentleman Scientist, and Hypnotist''
Ph.D. Dissertation, School of History and Philosophy of Science, Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences, University of New South Wales, January 2013. * Yeates, L. B. (2018)
"James Braid (II): Mesmerism, Braid’s Crucial Experiment, and Braid's Discovery of Neuro-Hypnotism"
''Australian Journal of Clinical Hypnotherapy & Hypnosis'', Vol. 40, No. 1 (Autumn 2018), pp. 40–92.

External links

* * * * {{Authority control Hypnosis New Thought beliefs Obsolete biology theories Obsolete medical theories Obsolete scientific theories Spirituality Vitalism Articles containing video clips