Menumorut

Menumorut or Menumorout (Modern hu, Ménmarót) was the ruler of the lands between the rivers Mureș, Someș at the time of the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin around 900, according to the ''Gesta Hungarorum'', a Hungarian chronicle written after 1150 by an unidentified author, referred to as Anonymus. Historians debate whether Menumorut was an actual ruler or a fictional character created by the author, since the ''Gesta'' tells of multiple figures, including Menumorut, who are not identified in any other primary sources, and does not name any of the enemies of the invading Hungarians written of in other contemporary accounts of the invasion. According to Anonymus, Menumorut's duchy was populated primarily with Khazars and Székelys, and he acknowledged the suzerainty of the (unnamed) ruling Byzantine Emperor at the time.

Background

Early history of the Magyars

The most important source of the Magyars' early history is a work known as ''De Administrando Imperio'', written by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII around 952. According to the emperor, the Magyars "lived together with" the Khazars "for three years, and fought in alliance" with them for an unspecified time. The text suggests that the Magyars were once subjected to the Khazar Khaganate, the dominant power of the lands between the rivers Dnieper and Volga, but modern historians debate whether their subjection lasted only for a couple of years, as the emperor states, or for a longer period. In the same area, three or four local variants of the Saltovo-Mayaki archaeological culture, which represented semi-nomadic groups, emerged in the western regions of the Eurasian steppes in the second half of the 8th century.

Internal strife and attacks by neighboring tribes caused the decline of the Khaganate in the early 9th century. The Magyars were among the Khazars' subject peoples who seceded, settling in the Pontic steppes to the north of the Black Sea. According to Emperor Constantine VII, the Kabars, who "were of the race" of the Khazars, also rebelled against the Khaganate and joined the Magyars. This event occurred before 881, because in that year the Magyars and the Kabars invaded East Francia, according to the longer version of the '' Annals of Salzburg''. The Magyars also intervened in a war between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire on the latter's behalf in about 894. The Bulgarians formed an alliance with the Pechenegs, who dwelled in the lands east of the Magyars, and they jointly invaded the Pontic steppes and defeated the Magyars, forcing them to move to the Carpathian Basin in search for a new homeland.

Their conquest of the Carpathian Basin is the principal subject of the ''Gesta Hungarorum''. The ''Gesta'' was written after 1150 by an unidentified author, who is referred to as Anonymus in modern scholars' works. He wrote primarily of the Magyars' battles with six local rulers, including Menumorut, who are not named in other annals and chronicles. On the other hand, Anonymus did not write of Svatopluk I of Moravia, Luitpold of Bavaria, and other local rulers whose fights with the conquering Magyars were described in late 9th-century or early 10th-century sources.

Crișana on the eve of the Hungarian Conquest

Burial sites unearthed at Valea lui Mihai and other sites along the Ier River containing remains of horses show that the Avars settled in Crișana shortly after their arrival in the Carpathian Basin in 567. However, few belt mounts decorated with griffins and tendrils or other such features of later Avar craftsmanship have been found in the same region. A distinct group of barrow cemeteries, or ''tumuli''the so-called " Nușfalău–Someșeni" cemeteriesappeared in the lands bordering on " Late Avar" cemeteries in the 8th century. In contrast with the Avars, who practised inhumation, the populations using these cemeteries cremated their dead. "Nușfalău–Someșeni" cemeteries show similarities to some in the East Slavic territories, but they yielded items similar to examples unearthed in West Slavic sites and to "Late Avar" belt mounts.

The Avars' power collapsed after Charlemagne and his commanders launched a series of campaigns against the western regions of the Carpathian Basin between 788 and 803. However, Avar groups survived the destruction of their empire: Regino of Prüm wrote that the Magyars first "roamed the wildernesses of the Pannonians and the Avars" in the Carpathian Basin after their flight from the Pontic steppes. According to historian András Róna-Tas, these wildernesses of the Avars ''(solitudo Avarorum)'' were situated in the plains along the rivers Tisza and Danube, including Crișana.

The collapse of the Avar Khaganate enabled the development of "Great" Moravia, a Slavic polity which emerged in the region of the Middle Danube. Svatopluk I of Moravia, who reigned from 870 to 894, expanded his authority over a large region. Svatopluk's empire included Crişana, according to historian Gyula Kristó, since Emperor Constantine's reference to "great Moravia, the unbaptized"''Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio'' (ch. 40), p. 177. describes the rivers Timiș, Mureș, Criș, Tisza and Toutis as within its territory. Archaeologist rejects Kristó's theory, because no archaeological finds from the late 9th century evidence Moravian influence in Crișana.

The Bulgarians also benefited from the fall of the Avar Khaganate. One of the military commanders of Omurtag of Bulgaria drowned in the Tisza, showing that Omurtag, who ruled between 814 and 831, attempted to expand his authority towards this river. The Bulgarians allied with the Franks and invaded Moravia in both 863 and 883. Based on sources from around 870, the Persian scholar Gardizi wrote of two peoples, the Nandarin and the Mirdāt, whose lands were ten days' journey apart. Historians István Bóna and György Györffy identify the Nandarins as Bulgarians (because ''nándor'' was the Hungarian exonym for the Bulgarians), and the Mirdāt as Moravians. If their identifications are valid, the distance between Bulgaria and Moravia was about circa 870.

Anonymus's narration

Menumorut and his duchy

Menumorut ruled an area bordered by the rivers Tisza, Mureș, Someș

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