''Maze'', also known as ''Maze War'', is a 3D multiplayer

first-person shooter First-person shooter (FPS) is a sub-genre of shooter video games centered on gun and other weapon-based combat in a first-person perspective, with the player experiencing the action through the eyes of the protagonist and controlling the p ...

maze game originally developed in 1973 and expanded in 1974. The first version was developed by high school students Steve Colley, Greg Thompson, and Howard Palmer for the

Imlac PDS-1 IMLAC Corporation was an American electronics company in Needham, Massachusetts, that manufactured graphical display systems, mainly, the PDS-1 and PDS-4, in the 1970s. The PDS-1 debuted in 1970. It was the first low-cost commercial realizatio ...

minicomputer during a school work/study program at the

NASA The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agencies of the United States government, independent agency of the US federal government responsible for the civil List of government space agencies, space program ...

Ames Research Center The Ames Research Center (ARC), also known as NASA Ames, is a major NASA research center at Moffett Federal Airfield in California's Silicon Valley. It was founded in 1939 as the second National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) labo ...

. By the end of 1973 the game featured shooting elements and could be played on two computers connected together. After Thompson began school at the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private land-grant research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Established in 1861, MIT has played a key role in the development of modern technology and science, and is one of the ...

(MIT), he brought the game to the school's computer science laboratory in February 1974, where he and

Dave Lebling Peter David Lebling (born October 30, 1949) is an interactive fiction game designer ( implementor) and programmer who has worked at various companies, including Infocom and Avid. Life and career He was born in Washington, D.C., grew up in Mary ...

expanded it into an eight-player game using the school's

Digital Equipment Corporation Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC ), using the trademark Digital, was a major American company in the computer industry from the 1960s to the 1990s. The company was co-founded by Ken Olsen and Harlan Anderson in 1957. Olsen was president un ...

PDP-10 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)'s PDP-10, later marketed as the DECsystem-10, is a mainframe computer family manufactured beginning in 1966 and discontinued in 1983. 1970s models and beyond were marketed under the DECsystem-10 name, espec ...

minicomputer and PDS-1

terminal Terminal may refer to: Computing Hardware * Terminal (electronics), a device for joining electrical circuits together * Terminal (telecommunication), a device communicating over a line * Computer terminal, a set of primary input and output dev ...

s along with adding scoring, top-down map views, and a level editor. Other programmers at MIT improved this version of the game, which was also playable between people at different universities over the nascent

ARPANET The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was the first wide-area packet-switched network with distributed control and one of the first networks to implement the TCP/IP protocol suite. Both technologies became the technical fou ...

. Due to the popularity of the game, laboratory managers at MIT both played it while also trying to restrict its use due to the large amount of time students were spending on it. There are reports that the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (

DARPA The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is a research and development agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military. Originally known as the Ad ...

) at one point banned the game from the ARPANET due to its popularity. Thompson and other programmers later developed several other versions of ''Maze'', including a specialized hardware-based game by Thompson and other students as well as a version titled ''Mazewar'' by Jim Guyton, Mike Wahrman, and colleagues at

Xerox Xerox Holdings Corporation (; also known simply as Xerox) is an American corporation that sells print and electronic document, digital document products and services in more than 160 countries. Xerox is headquartered in Norwalk, Connecticut (ha ...

for the

Xerox Alto The Xerox Alto is a computer designed from its inception to support an operating system based on a graphical user interface (GUI), later using the desktop metaphor. The first machines were introduced on 1 March 1973, a decade before mass-market ...

computer. The Xerox version went on to inspire many different takes on the first-person maze game concept in the 1980s and 1990s, released under many different names. ''Maze'' is believed to be the first 3D first-person game ever made. It is likely also the earliest example of what was later termed the

genre and is considered along with the 1974

space flight simulation game A space flight simulation is a genre of flight simulator video games that lets players experience space flight to varying degrees of realism. Common mechanics include space exploration, space trade and space combat. Overview Some games in the ...

Spasim ''Spasim'' is a 32-player 3D networked space flight simulation game and first-person space shooter developed by Jim Bowery for the PLATO computer network and released in March 1974. The game features four teams of eight players, each controll ...

'' to be one of the "joint ancestors" of the genre. It has additionally been credited with a variety of other firsts, such as the first level editor, first observer mode and radar, and first

avatars Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearanc ...

, but due to its reliance on specific, expensive computer hardware its direct influence on video games and the first-person shooter genre was limited.

Gameplay

''Maze'' is a multiplayer

maze game in which players traverse a flat maze and shoot opponents to score points. The maze layout is represented by a grid of spaces that are either empty or solid and form a flat plane containing walls of equal height. The game contains a default maze layout, but players can provide their own upon starting the game. The player can move forward and backwards between spaces at a rate of one space per key press and can turn left or right or look behind themselves in 90-degree increments. They can also peek around corners, which changes their view as if they had both moved forward and turned, but does not move their player character or allow them to shoot. Other players in the maze are displayed as the letters of their usernames along with an indicator of which direction they are looking; later versions of the game replaced this with the image of an eyeball. Players can also send text messages that are displayed on the screens of other players. Players can shoot bullets, which rapidly move away from the player and hit other players upon touching them; shooting a player earns the shooter ten points, while being shot loses the target five points. After being shot, the target has two seconds to move away before they can be shot again. The players' scores are displayed next to the view of the maze. Early versions of the game let the player overlay the screen with a top-down view of the maze and their

avatar Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appeara ...

's position in it, while later versions kept the top-down view next to or below the viewscreen at all times. Different versions of the game support different numbers of players; the initial concept only supported two players, while the first main version of the game supported eight players at different

s, and later variants supported more. In addition to human players, "robot" players can be added to the game, which follow simple algorithms to play the game and slow down if they reach a score limit.

Development

Maze

The original version of the game was developed by high school students Steve Colley, Howard Palmer, and Greg Thompson in mid to late 1973 during a school work/study program at the

Silicon Valley Silicon Valley is a region in Northern California that serves as a global center for high technology and innovation. Located in the southern part of the San Francisco Bay Area, it corresponds roughly to the geographical areas San Mateo Coun ...

, California. The trio were working on creating graphical representations of

computational fluid dynamics Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical analysis and data structures to analyze and solve problems that involve fluid flows. Computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate ...

minicomputers, which unlike many other minicomputers at the time included a

vector graphics Vector graphics is a form of computer graphics in which visual images are created directly from geometric shapes defined on a Cartesian plane, such as points, lines, curves and polygons. The associated mechanisms may include vector display ...

monitor Monitor or monitor may refer to: Places * Monitor, Alberta * Monitor, Indiana, town in the United States * Monitor, Kentucky * Monitor, Oregon, unincorporated community in the United States * Monitor, Washington * Monitor, Logan County, West ...

. Colley was developing a method of determining which vertices of a three-dimensional object would not be visible to a viewer and then not drawing them on the screen, thereby displaying a 3D model that looked solid rather than see-through. Colley created a program that could rotate a solid-seeming cube on the screen, and the trio considered how to make a fun program with it, as students at the lab, including Thompson, had previously created versions of arcade games on the computers. Palmer suggested creating a maze that the user could move through, which he and Colley agreed could work if it was a flat maze composed of cubes where the player's view could only be at 90 degree angles. Colley came back to the other two the next day with the basic ''Maze'' program, wherein the player had a goal of traversing the maze to its exit. Palmer and Thompson expanded the game to support two players at once using two PDS-1s linked together with a serial cable, and then added the ability for the two players to shoot one another. Colley added the ability to "peek" around corners without moving because he felt it was too easy to be shot while trying to move and then turn. By the end of 1973, all three developers had left NASA to go to college, and they took the ''Maze'' program with them. Thompson went to the

(MIT) beginning in the fall of 1973, while Colley and Palmer went to

California Institute of Technology The California Institute of Technology (branded as Caltech or CIT)The university itself only spells its short form as "Caltech"; the institution considers other spellings such a"Cal Tech" and "CalTech" incorrect. The institute is also occasional ...

and Stanford University, respectively, at the start of 1974. The game has been inconsistently named both ''Maze'' and ''Maze War'': while Thompson and Colley, writing in a 2004 retrospective, refer to it as ''Maze''; Palmer refers to it as ''Maze War''. Later versions of the game also use both names inconsistently, although the PDS-1 source code titles itself "Maze". LCM - DEC PDP-10 - 02

At MIT, Thompson became involved in computer modeling of dynamic systems at MIT's Project MAC (now the

MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) is a research institute at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) formed by the 2003 merger of the Laboratory for Computer Science (LCS) and the Artificial Intelligence Lab ...

), which featured a

(DEC)

minicomputer networked to eight less-powerful PDS-1s for use as graphical terminals. Thompson brought paper tapes of code for several programs from NASA Ames to MIT in February 1974, including ''Maze''. He and co-worker

decided to recreate and expand the game on the Project MAC computer system. Although Lebling does not recall shooting in the version of the game Thompson showed him, it was soon re-added as the pair greatly expanded the game. The new version of the game used the PDP-10 as a centralized server and supported up to eight players or computer-controlled figures in a maze at once, which was now a 16 by 32 grid. Thompson worked on the PDS-1 code that allowed for more players, the visuals for the bullets, the score-keeping, the ability to see a top-down view of the maze, and a cheat command to move through walls. Lebling, meanwhile, wrote the PDP-10 code to connect all of the players and allow text messaging between terminals, a simple "robot" player that could play the game if there were not enough human players, and a program for players to create their own maze layouts. When he discovered that the robot players were too difficult for some players, he altered the robot players to move slower once they scored a certain number of points. Players were represented in the maze as their three-letter user id, along with an arrow pointing which way they were facing. The game was popular around the lab as well as with other MIT students, who would make accounts on the system just to play ''Maze''. As users had to reserve time on the terminals due to the limited availability, some players would go to the lab in the middle of the night in order to play the game. According to Lebling, ''Maze'' was played almost constantly outside of the primary lab hours. Once Thompson and Lebling converted the game to the PDP-10, other programmers further developed the ''Maze'' code. Ken Harrenstien and Charles Frankston rewrote portions of the game to use fewer resources so that the PDP-10 could run more than one instance of the game at the same time. Another researcher, Tak To, wrote a "Maze Watcher" program that ran on an

Evans & Sutherland Evans & Sutherland is a pioneering American computer firm in the computer graphics field. Its current products are used in digital projection environments like planetariums. Its simulation business, which it sold to Rockwell Collins, sold products ...

LDS-1 terminal and would display a top-down view of the maze and players in a ''Maze'' game for onlookers. Although lab director J. C. R. Licklider and assistant director Al Vezza also played the game, as the lab was funded for serious purposes by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (

) they attempted to limit use of the program. At Vezza's request, Lebling created a "Maze Guncher" program that would run in the background and crash any running ''Maze'' games, leading to a continual back and forth as players found ways to avoid the program—or simply turn it off, as the system had no security mechanism to prevent it. Project MAC was part of the nascent

, the precursor to the

Internet The Internet (or internet) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a '' network of networks'' that consists of private, pub ...

, which connected several research institutions around America. Many of these institutions owned PDS-1 terminals, and ''Maze'' spread to them as well, allowing multiplayer games across the ARPANET. According to Lebling, the first multiplayer game between institutions was between students at MIT and the

University of California, Santa Cruz The University of California, Santa Cruz (UC Santa Cruz or UCSC) is a public land-grant research university in Santa Cruz, California. It is one of the ten campuses in the University of California system. Located on Monterey Bay, on the edge of ...

, although the slow speed of the network left the non-MIT players at a disadvantage. The code for the game was adjusted by Harrenstien and Frankston to account for the extra

network delay Network delay is a design and performance characteristic of a telecommunications network. It specifies the latency for a bit of data to travel across the network from one communication endpoint to another. It is typically measured in multiples ...

these cross-country games incurred. ''Maze'' was particularly popular at the

University of Southern California , mottoeng = "Let whoever earns the palm bear it" , religious_affiliation = Nonsectarian—historically Methodist , established = , accreditation = WSCUC , type = Private research university , academic_affiliations = , endowment = $8.1 ...

and Stanford: it was later reported that at one point DARPA banned it from the network as half of the communication traffic between Stanford and MIT was for the game.

The Maze Game and Mazewar

Programmers have created several variants of the original ''Maze'' game. The first was partially developed by Thompson himself; in the fall of 1976 he took an electrical engineering

digital electronics Digital electronics is a field of electronics involving the study of digital signals and the engineering of devices that use or produce them. This is in contrast to analog electronics and analog signals. Digital electronic circuits are usual ...

design class, in which he had to do a group project with Mark Horowitz and George Woltman. For the project, they created a hardware system that could run ''Maze'' titled "The Maze Game"; Thompson designed the computer hardware, Woltman wrote the software, and Horowitz created the display system. In this version, the maze was a 16 by 16 by 16 cube with no gravity in which the player could move up and down just as they did forward and back, as they found it easier to create hardware that did not need to treat the floor and ceiling differently than other sides. Woltman added robot players like in the computer version of the game, but the trio discovered that since humans found it difficult to visualize where they were in the multi-level maze, the robot players were much harder to beat despite their simple algorithm. They made the difficulty adjustable in response by letting the player adjust the hardware speed, in turn making the robots react slower. As the hardware could not use a computer monitor, the team used oscilloscopes that Horowitz made act as vector displays. After the class, the game remained as an example for future students for several years. Xerox Alto mit Rechner

In 1977, Jim Guyton, a staff member at

's Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), and Mike Wahrman, who worked at RAND Corporation, rewrote ''Maze'' for

computers, which could communicate with each other directly using the nascent

ethernet Ethernet () is a family of wired computer networking technologies commonly used in local area networks (LAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN) and wide area networks (WAN). It was commercially introduced in 1980 and first standardized in 1 ...

networking protocol. Wahrman had played the game at MIT in 1976 while he and Guyton worked at RAND Corporation, which he enthusiastically described to Guyton using the name "Mazewar". After Guyton moved to Xerox, the pair felt that the game would be suited to the Alto and could be improved on there, and Wahrman got copies of the PDP-10 and PDS-1 code. The pair spent the next year working on the game, which has been inconsistently remembered as ''Mazewar'', ''MazeWar'', ''Maze War'', and ''Maze Wars''. They adapted the graphics from the vector displays of the PDS-1 to the raster displays of the Alto, added the top-down display of the maze and the player's position in it to always be below the first-person view, and changed the networking code to handle multiple systems talking directly to each other without a central PDP-10 server. They rewrote the game entirely in the

Mesa A mesa is an isolated, flat-topped elevation, ridge or hill, which is bounded from all sides by steep escarpments and stands distinctly above a surrounding plain. Mesas characteristically consist of flat-lying soft sedimentary rocks capped by a ...

programming language and were assisted by several other Xerox employees, including Steven Hayes, Bill Verplank, Jim Sandman, and Bruce Malasky. The text representation of other players was replaced with a large eyeball drawn by Verplank. The game was an immediate hit around the office, and within a few weeks it had spread to other Xerox locations. Eventually, it migrated to MIT, Stanford, and Carnegie Mellon University, which were some of the few non-Xerox locations that owned Xerox Alto computers. Guyton maintained the game for another six months before leaving Xerox for RAND. In 1981, Xerox commercially released a modified version of the Alto as the

Xerox Star The Xerox Star workstation, officially named Xerox 8010 Information System, is the first commercial personal computer to incorporate technologies that have since become standard in personal computers, including a bitmapped display, a window-based ...

, and the source code to ''Mazewar'' proliferated after it, in turn inspiring further versions of ''Maze''.

Legacy

''Maze'' is believed to be the first 3D first-person game ever made. It is likely also the earliest example of what was later termed the

genre; prior confusion over the development timeline of the game has led to it being considered, along with ''

'', an early 1974

by Jim Bowery, to be one of the "joint ancestors" of the genre. It has additionally been credited with a variety of other firsts, such as level editing due to Lebling's editor, observer mode and radar from the top-down view, and avatars from the representation of other players. Despite its number of firsts, the limited availability of the game due to its reliance on specific, expensive computer hardware meant that it was not a large influence on video games or on the modern first-person shooter genre, which is generally held to have started with '' Catacomb 3-D'' in 1991 without direct inspiration from ''Maze''. The Xerox version of the game was adapted by Christopher Kent for the

X Window System The X Window System (X11, or simply X) is a windowing system for bitmap displays, common on Unix-like operating systems. X provides the basic framework for a GUI environment: drawing and moving windows on the display device and interacting wi ...

at DEC in 1986 as ''X MazeWars''. This version was based directly on the Xerox source code, which Kent, who had first been shown the game at RAND by Guyton, received from a former Xerox employee. In 1987, MacroMind released a version of the game for the

Apple An apple is an edible fruit produced by an apple tree (''Malus domestica''). Apple trees are cultivated worldwide and are the most widely grown species in the genus ''Malus''. The tree originated in Central Asia, where its wild ancestor, ' ...

Macintosh The Mac (known as Macintosh until 1999) is a family of personal computers designed and marketed by Apple Inc. Macs are known for their ease of use and minimalist designs, and are popular among students, creative professionals, and software en ...

titled ''Maze Wars+'', which was playable on the AppleTalk local network by up to 30 players. The game featured five different character avatars, including an eyeball similar to that found in the Xerox version of the game, four different types of robot players, additional maze features such as teleporters, and walls made of lines rather than blocks. Advertisements for the game referred to it as "a direct descendant of the well known M.I.T. and Xerox PARC network classics" and at one point listed it as for sale directly by MacroMind for US$49.95. It was followed by ''Super MazeWars'' by Callisto for

Mac OS Two major famlies of Mac operating systems were developed by Apple Inc. In 1984, Apple debuted the operating system that is now known as the "Classic" Mac OS with its release of the original Macintosh System Software. The system, rebranded "M ...

in 1992, which was bundled with Macintosh computers for a time. Several other games based on the ''Maze'' concept, with a variety of graphical styles and differences from the original versions, were released in the 1980s and 1990s. These include '' MIDI Maze'' for the Atari ST by Xanth Software in 1987, which was ported as ''Faceball 2000'' to the

Game Boy The is an 8-bit fourth generation handheld game console developed and manufactured by Nintendo. It was first released in Japan on April 21, 1989, in North America later the same year, and in Europe in late 1990. It was designed by the same t ...

, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and

Game Gear The is an 8-bit Fourth generation of video game consoles, fourth generation handheld game console released by Sega on October 6, 1990, in Japan, in April 1991 throughout North America and Europe, and during 1992 in Australia. The Game Gear pri ...

; ''Oracle Maze'', a demo application at the Interop 92 conference to demonstrate Oracle's networking technology connecting many different companies' computers; ''MazeWars'' for

NeXTSTEP NeXTSTEP is a discontinued object-oriented, multitasking operating system based on the Mach kernel and the UNIX-derived BSD. It was developed by NeXT Computer in the late 1980s and early 1990s and was initially used for its range of propri ...

by Mike Kienenberger in 1994, and ''MazeWars'' for

Palm OS Palm OS (also known as Garnet OS) was a mobile operating system initially developed by Palm, Inc., for personal digital assistants (PDAs) in 1996. Palm OS was designed for ease of use with a touchscreen-based graphical user interface. It is pro ...

by IndiVideo in 1998.

Notes

References

{{reflist, refs= {{cite conference , url=https://www.digibarn.com/collections/presentations/maze-war/index_files/frame.html , title=The aMazing History of Maze , last1=Thompson , first1=Greg , date=November 7, 2004 , publisher= DigiBarn Computer Museum , location=

Mountain View, California Mountain View is a city in Santa Clara County, California, United States. Named for its views of the Santa Cruz Mountains, it has a population of 82,376. Mountain View was integral to the early history and growth of Silicon Valley, and is the ...

, conference= Computer History Museum Vintage Computer Festival 7.0 , access-date=May 31, 2022 , archive-date=July 17, 2021 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717082417/https://www.digibarn.com/collections/presentations/maze-war/index_files/frame.html , url-status=live {{cite magazine , last=Handy , first=Alex , pages=45–47 , date=July 2005 , issue=176 , magazine= Computer Games Magazine , title=The First First-person Shooter , publisher=

theGlobe.com theGlobe.com was an internet startup founded in 1995

, issn=1546-5101 {{cite web , url=https://www.polygon.com/features/2015/5/21/8627231/the-first-first-person-shooter , title=The first first-person shooter , last=Moss , first=Richard , website=

Polygon In geometry, a polygon () is a plane figure that is described by a finite number of straight line segments connected to form a closed ''polygonal chain'' (or ''polygonal circuit''). The bounded plane region, the bounding circuit, or the two to ...

, date=May 21, 2015 , access-date=June 17, 2020 , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617135233/https://www.polygon.com/features/2015/5/21/8627231/the-first-first-person-shooter , archive-date=June 17, 2020 {{cite web , title=Steve Colley's accounting of the beginning of Maze (and other history and thoughts) , url=https://www.digibarn.com/history/04-VCF7-MazeWar/stories/colley.html , last=Colley , first=Steve , website=Stories from the Maze War 30 Year Retrospective , publisher= DigiBarn Computer Museum , date=November 2004 , access-date=May 30, 2022 , archive-date=May 11, 2022 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511041112/https://www.digibarn.com/history/04-VCF7-MazeWar/stories/colley.html , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Howard Palmer reports the True Early History of Maze War! , url=https://www.digibarn.com/collections/games/xerox-maze-war/index.html#palmer , last=Palmer , first=Howard , website=The Maze War 30 Year Retrospective at the DigiBarn , publisher= DigiBarn Computer Museum , date=November 2004 , access-date=May 30, 2022 , archive-date=November 15, 2020 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115154532/http://www.digibarn.com/collections/games/xerox-maze-war/index.html#palmer , url-status=live {{cite book , last=Waldrop , first=M. Mitchell , title=The Dream Machine , pages=308–309 , year=2018 , publisher=Stripe Press , isbn=978-1-73226-511-0 {{cite web , title=David Lebling's Story of Maze at MIT (1974+) , url=https://www.digibarn.com/history/04-VCF7-MazeWar/stories/lebling.html , last=Lebling , first=Dave , author-link=Dave Lebling , website=Stories from the Maze War 30 Year Retrospective , publisher= DigiBarn Computer Museum , date=November 2004 , access-date=May 30, 2022 , archive-date=February 23, 2022 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223214843/https://www.digibarn.com/history/04-VCF7-MazeWar/stories/lebling.html , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Jim Guyton's Story of Maze at Xerox (Alto and Star) , url=https://www.digibarn.com/history/04-VCF7-MazeWar/stories/guyton.html , last=Guyton , first=Jim , website=Stories from the Maze War 30 Year Retrospective , publisher= DigiBarn Computer Museum , date=November 2004 , access-date=May 30, 2022 , archive-date=February 23, 2022 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223214835/https://www.digibarn.com/history/04-VCF7-MazeWar/stories/guyton.html , url-status=live {{cite web , title=A History and Analysis of Level Design in 3D Computer Games , last=Shahrani , first=Sam , url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/2674/educational_feature_a_history_and_.php , work=

Gamasutra ''Game Developer'', known as ''Gamasutra'' until 2021, is a website founded in 1997 that focuses on aspects of video game development. It is owned and operated by Informa and acts as the online sister publication to the print magazine '' Gam ...

, publisher= UBM , date=April 5, 2006 , access-date=September 5, 2017 , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202085904/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/2674/educational_feature_a_history_and_.php , archive-date=December 2, 2012 {{cite web , title=The Complete History Of First-Person Shooters , url=https://www.pcmag.com/news/the-complete-history-of-first-person-shooters , last=Jensen , first=K. Thor , date=October 11, 2017 , website=

PC Gamer ''PC Gamer'' is a magazine and website founded in the United Kingdom in 1993 devoted to PC gaming and published monthly by Future plc. The magazine has several regional editions, with the UK and US editions becoming the best selling PC games m ...

, publisher= Future , access-date=May 31, 2022 , archive-date=June 12, 2020 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612062316/https://www.pcmag.com/news/the-complete-history-of-first-person-shooters , url-status=live {{cite web , url=https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2016/02/headshot-a-visual-history-of-first-person-shooters/ , title=Headshot: A visual history of first-person shooters , last=Moss , first=Richard , publisher= Ars Technica , date=February 14, 2016 , access-date=October 14, 2017 , quote=Jim Bowery's 32-player, 3D networked, first-person perspective space shooter ''Spasim''—a kind of forebear to space combat sims ''Star Wars: X-Wing'' and ''Elite''—got its first release on the PLATO computer around this time as well, effectively making ''Maze'' and ''Spasim'' joint ancestors of the FPS genre. , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015044747/https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2016/02/headshot-a-visual-history-of-first-person-shooters/ , archive-date=October 15, 2017 {{cite web , url=http://www.usgamer.net/articles/blast-from-the-past-the-dawn-of-the-first-person-shooter , title=Blast from the Past: The Dawn of the First-Person Shooter , last=Davison , first=Pete , publisher=

USGamer Gamer Network Limited (formerly Eurogamer Network Limited) is a British mass media company based in Brighton. Founded in 1999 by Rupert and Nick Loman, it owns brands—primarily editorial websites—relating to video game journalism and oth ...

, date=July 17, 2013 , access-date=October 14, 2017 , quote=There's some debate over exactly what the first ever first-person perspective video game was, but it's either Maze War, an early example of a maze-based "deathmatch," and a game which pioneered the "flick-screen" grid-based movement that would be seen in classic dungeon crawlers such as Wizardry and Eye of the Beholder for many years afterwards; or Spasim, a space combat game which purports to be the first ever 3D multiplayer title. , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015044409/http://www.usgamer.net/articles/blast-from-the-past-the-dawn-of-the-first-person-shooter , archive-date=October 15, 2017 {{cite book , last=Wolf , first=Mark J. P. , chapter=BattleZone and the Origins of First-Person Shooting Games , editor-last1=Voorhees , editor-first1=Gerald A. , editor-last2=Call , editor-first2=Joshua , editor-last3=Whitlock , editor-first3=Katie , title=Guns, Grenades, and Grunts: First-Person Shooter Games , publisher= Bloomsbury Publishing , date=November 2, 2012 , isbn=978-1-4411-9144-1 {{cite web , url=https://www.engadget.com/2012/06/12/the-game-archaeologist-maze-war/ , last=Olivetti , first=Justin , date=June 12, 2012 , title=The Game Archaeologist: Maze War , website=

Engadget ''Engadget'' ( ) is a multilingual technology blog network with daily coverage of gadgets and consumer electronics. ''Engadget'' manages ten blogs four of which are written in English and six have international versions with independent editor ...

, publisher=

Yahoo Yahoo! (, styled yahoo''!'' in its logo) is an American web services provider. It is headquartered in Sunnyvale, California and operated by the namesake company Yahoo Inc., which is 90% owned by investment funds managed by Apollo Global Manage ...

, access-date=May 30, 2022 , archive-date=May 6, 2018 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180506045343/https://www.engadget.com/2012/06/12/the-game-archaeologist-maze-war/ , url-status=live {{cite book , last=Barton , first=Matt , title=Vintage Games 2.0 , date=2019 , publisher= CRC Press , isbn=978-1-00-000092-4 , pages=47–51 {{cite book , url=https://www.digibarn.com/collections/games/maze-war/macromind-mazewars/MacroMind%20MazeWars%20Mac%202a.jpg , date=1987 , title=Maze Wars+ advertisement , publisher= MacroMind , access-date=May 31, 2022 , archive-date=January 21, 2022 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121085847/https://www.digibarn.com/collections/games/maze-war/macromind-mazewars/MacroMind%20MazeWars%20Mac%202a.jpg , url-status=live

External links

* Imlac PDS-1
Assembler source
an
listing
for the MIT version of ''Maze'', as of April 1974
Class report
for "The Maze Game" hardware design project
Imlac Maze War Video
of ''Maze'' gameplay by Tom Uban at the Computer History Museum
Video
of Xerox Alto version of ''Maze War'' used as evidence of prior art in later copyright court case 1973 video games First-person shooters Mainframe games Maze games Multiplayer online games Public-domain software with source code Video games developed in the United States