Maxakalían languages
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The Maxakalían languages (also Mashakalían) were first classified into the
Jê languages The Jê languages (also spelled Gê, Jean, Ye, Gean), or Jê–Kaingang languages, are spoken by the Jê, a group of indigenous peoples in Brazil. Genetic relations The Jê family forms the core of the Macro-Jê family. Kaufman (1990) finds t ...
. It was only in 1931 that
Čestmír Loukotka Čestmír Loukotka (12 November 1895 – 13 April 1966) was a Czechoslovak linguist. His daughter was Jarmila Loukotková. Career Loukotka proposed a classification for the languages of South America based on several previous works. This ...
separated them from the Jê family. Alfred Métraux and Curt Nimuendajú considered the Maxakalían family isolated from others.
John Alden Mason John Alden Mason (January 14, 1885 – November 7, 1967) was an American archaeological anthropologist and linguist. Mason was born in Orland, Indiana, but grew up in Philadelphia's Germantown. He received his undergraduate degree from the Unive ...
suggests a connection with the Macro-Jê stock, confirmed by Aryon Rodrigues.


Languages

Apart from extinct varieties generally seen as dialects of Maxakalí, Mason noted resemblances with a few other extinct languages of the area: Pataxó, Malalí and Coropó. However, Coropó is now thought to be a Purian language. Campbell (1997) therefore lists the Maxakalian languages as: # Malalí ''(†)'' # Pataxó (Patashó) ''(†)'' (retain some words) # Maxakalí (Mashacalí) (1,270 speakers) ''Glottolog'' (2016) restores Coropó (Koropó) as a Maxakalían language.


Nikulin (2020)

Nikulin (2020) proposes the following internal classification of the Maxakalían languages:Nikulin, Andrey. 2020.
Proto-Macro-Jê: um estudo reconstrutivo
'. Doctoral dissertation, University of Brasília.
;Maxakalí *'' Malalí'' *Nuclear Maxakalí **'' Maxakalí'' **'' Ritual Maxakalí''; '' Makoní'' **'' Pataxó''; ''Pataxó-Hãhãhãe'' **'' Koropó'' Maxakalí is a sister of Krenák and possibly also Kamakã. Together, they form a Trans- São Francisco branch within the Macro-Jê language phylum in Nikulin's (2020) classification.


Ramirez (2015)

Internal classification of the Maxakali languages according to Ramirez, et al. (2015):Ramirez, H., Vegini, V., & França, M. C. V. de. (2015)
Koropó, puri, kamakã e outras línguas do Leste Brasileiro
''LIAMES: Línguas Indígenas Americanas'', 15(2), 223 - 277.
* Malali *Maxakali-Pataxó **(?) Koropó **Maxakali proper ***
Maxakali The Maxakali are an ethnic group of indigenous people in Brazil. Geography and Ethnology The Maxakali live in the districts of Santa Helena de Minas, Bertópolis, Ladainha and Teófilo Otoni in the federal state Minas Gerais. The 400 memb ...
***Old Machacari (including: Monoxó, Makoni, Kapoxó, Kumanaxó, Panhame, etc.) ** Pataxó of WiedWied, Maximilian Alexander Philipp, Prinz von. 1989. ''Viagem ao Brasil nos anos de 1815 a 1817''. Belo Horizonte: Editora Itatiaia. **Pataxó-Hãhãhãe Currently,
Maxakali The Maxakali are an ethnic group of indigenous people in Brazil. Geography and Ethnology The Maxakali live in the districts of Santa Helena de Minas, Bertópolis, Ladainha and Teófilo Otoni in the federal state Minas Gerais. The 400 memb ...
(excluding Old Machacari) is the only living language, while all other languages are extinct. Pataxó as documented by
Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied Prince Alexander Philipp Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied (23 September 1782 – 3 February 1867) was a German explorer, ethnologist and naturalist. He led a pioneering expedition to southeast Brazil between 1815–1817, from which the album ''Reise na ...
(1989: 510-511) in 1816 is distinct from Pataxó-Hãhãhãe. Pataxó-Hãhãhãe was spoken into the 20th century and has been documented by Meader (1978: 45-50), Loukotka (1963: 32-33), and Silva & Rodrigues (1982). Many Maxakalian varieties are attested only from 19th-century word lists, some of which are: *''Mashacari'' ( A.St-Hil, 2000: 274; Wied, 1989: 509-510) ollected in 1816-1817*'' Kapoxó'' ( Martius, 1863: 170-172) ollected in 1818*''Monoxó'' (Saint-Hilaire, 2000: 181Saint-Hilaire, Auguste de. 2000. ''Viagem pelas províncias do Rio de Janeiro e Minas Gerais''. Belo Horizonte: Editora Itatiaia.) ollected in 1817*'' Makoni'' (Saint-Hilaire, 2000: 212; Martius, 1863: 173-176; Wied, 1989: 512-513) ollected in 1816-1818*'' Malali'' (Saint-Hilaire, 2000: 181; Martius, 1863: 207-208; Wied, 1989: 511-512) ollected in 1816-1818


Loukotka (1968)

Below is a full list of Mashakali languages and dialects listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties. ;Western * Mashakali / Maxacari - language once spoken in the state of Minas Gerais on the Marucí River and Jucurucu River, later on the Belmonte River. * Kaposho / Capoxo - once spoken on the Araçuaí River. *Kumanasho / Cumanaxo - extinct language originally spoken on the Suaçuí Grande River, state of Minas Gerais, later at the sources of the Gravatá River, state of Bahia. *Moakañi - once spoken on the Fanado River (Panado River) near Conceição, later on the Caravelas River. (Unattested) *Pañáme - once spoken on the Suaçuí Pequeno River, Minas Gerais. *Monoxo / Monachobm / Menacho - originally spoken on the Itanhaém River and now on the Posto Paraguaçu, state of Bahia. * Makoni - formerly spoken on the Caravelas River and near Alto dos Bois. *Paraxirn - once spoken on the Suaçuí Pequeno River. (Unattested) *Bonitó - once spoken on the Suaçuí Grande River near Peçanha and Bonito. (Unattested) *Goaña - once spoken on the Corrente River and Guanhães River. (Unattested) *Malacaxi - extinct language between Malacacheta and Urupuca (near Água Boa, Minas Gerais). (Unattested) *Mapoxo - formerly spoken on the Suaçuí Grande River. (Unattested) *Xonin - once spoken between the Peçanha River, Figueira River, and Doce River. (Unattested) *Moxotó - extinct language once spoken on the Suaçuí Grande River and Suaçuí Pequeno River near Peçanha. (Unattested) *Toréjicana - once spoken between the Araçuaí River and Fanado River. (Unattested) *Vocoin - once spoken between the Araçuaí River and
Jequitinhonha River The Jequitinhonha River () flows mainly through the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais. Its source lies near Diamantina in the Espinhaço Mountains at an elevation of , after which it flows northward and then east-northeastward across the uplands. ...
. (Unattested) *Batum - once spoken between the Doce River and Conceição River. (Unattested) ;Eastern * Patasho - originally spoken between the
Jequitinhonha River The Jequitinhonha River () flows mainly through the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais. Its source lies near Diamantina in the Espinhaço Mountains at an elevation of , after which it flows northward and then east-northeastward across the uplands. ...
and São Francisco River in the state of Minas Gerais; the last survivors became extinct on the right shore of the
Jequitinhonha River The Jequitinhonha River () flows mainly through the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais. Its source lies near Diamantina in the Espinhaço Mountains at an elevation of , after which it flows northward and then east-northeastward across the uplands. ...
, Espirito Santo. *Tocoyó - extinct language originally spoken in the valley of the Araçuaí River and near Minas Novas de Fanado in the state of Minas Gerais, later on the right bank of the
Jequitinhonha River The Jequitinhonha River () flows mainly through the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais. Its source lies near Diamantina in the Espinhaço Mountains at an elevation of , after which it flows northward and then east-northeastward across the uplands. ...
in the state of Espirito Santo. (Unattested) *Maquinuca - once spoken near the Salto Grande on the
Jequitinhonha River The Jequitinhonha River () flows mainly through the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais. Its source lies near Diamantina in the Espinhaço Mountains at an elevation of , after which it flows northward and then east-northeastward across the uplands. ...
. (Unattested) *Canarin - once spoken on the Caravelas River and
Mucuri River The Mucuri River is a river of Bahia and Minas Gerais states in eastern Brazil. See also *List of rivers of Bahia *List of rivers of Minas Gerais A ''list'' is any set of items in a row. List or lists may also refer to: People * List (sur ...
, state of Espirito Santo. (Unattested) *Tucanuçú - once spoken south of the
Jequitinhonha River The Jequitinhonha River () flows mainly through the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais. Its source lies near Diamantina in the Espinhaço Mountains at an elevation of , after which it flows northward and then east-northeastward across the uplands. ...
near Campos de
Caatinga Caatinga (, ) is a type of semi-arid tropical vegetation, and an ecoregion characterized by this vegetation in interior northeastern Brazil. The name "Caatinga" is a Tupi word meaning "white forest" or "white vegetation" (''caa'' = forest, v ...
. (Unattested) *Aboninim - once spoken in the state of Minas Gerais in the Serra Geral do Espinhaço. (Unattested) *Catiguasú - once spoken in the state of Minas Gerais between the
Jequitinhonha River The Jequitinhonha River () flows mainly through the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais. Its source lies near Diamantina in the Espinhaço Mountains at an elevation of , after which it flows northward and then east-northeastward across the uplands. ...
and São Francisco River. (Unattested) *Hahaháy - spoken in the state of Bahia on the Cachoeira River. ;Southern * Malali - extinct language formerly spoken in the Serra Redonda and on the Suaçuí Pequeno River, Minas Gerais. *Zamplan - once spoken on the Doce River and at the sources of the Piracicaba River. (Unattested)


Mason (1950)

Mason (1950) lists: ;Mashacalí * Caposhó (Koposǒ) *Cumanashó (Kumanaxó) * Macuní (Makoni) * Mashacalí (Maxakarí) *Monoshó (Monoxó) *Panyame (Paname)


Vocabulary

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Mashakali languages.


References


Bibliography

* Campbell, Lyle. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. . * Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What We Know and How to Know More. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), ''Amazonian Linguistics: Studies in Lowland South American Languages'' (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. . * Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The Native Languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), ''Atlas of the World's Languages'' (pp. 46–76). London: Routledge. {{DEFAULTSORT:Maxakalian languages Nuclear Macro-Jê languages Indigenous languages of South America (Central) Indigenous languages of Eastern Brazil