Jalāl al-Dawla Mu'izz al-Dunyā Wa'l-Din Abu'l-Fatḥ ibn Alp Arslān (8 August 1055 – 19 November 1092, full name: fa, ), better known by his regnal name of Malik-Shah I ( fa, ), was the third sultan of the
Great Seljuk Empire from 1072 to 1092, under whom the sultanate reached its zenith of power and influence.
During his youth, he spent his time participating in the campaigns of his father
Alp Arslan, along with the latters vizier
Nizam al-Mulk. During one of such campaigns in 1072, Alp Arslan was fatally wounded and died only a few days later. After that, Malik-Shah was crowned as the new sultan of the empire, but the succession was contested by his uncle
Qavurt
Kara Arslan Ahmad Qavurt (died 1073), better simply known as Qavurt (also spelled Kavurt) was a Seljuq prince. Upon his brother's death, he led an unsuccessful rebellion against his nephew in an attempt to gain the Seljuk throne.
Background
T ...
. Although Malik-Shah was the nominal head of the Seljuk state, Nizam al-Mulk held near absolute power during his reign. Malik-Shah spent the rest of his reign waging war against the
Karakhanids on the eastern side, and establishing order in the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historica ...
.
Malik-Shah's death to this day remains under dispute; according to some scholars, he was poisoned by Abbasid caliph
al-Muqtadi, while others say that he was poisoned by the supporters of Nizam al-Mulk.
Etymology
Although he was known by several names, he was mostly known as "Malik-Shah", a combination of the Arabic word
malik (king) and the Persian word
shah
Shah (; fa, شاه, , ) is a royal title that was historically used by the leading figures of Iranian monarchies.Yarshater, EhsaPersia or Iran, Persian or Farsi, ''Iranian Studies'', vol. XXII no. 1 (1989) It was also used by a variety of ...
(which also means king).
Early life
Malik-Shah was born on 16 August 1055 and spent his youth in
Isfahan. According to the 12th-century
Persian historian
Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi, Malik-Shah had fair skin, was tall and somewhat bulky. In 1064, Malik-Shah, only 9 years old by then, along with
Nizam al-Mulk, the Persian ''
vizier
A vizier (; ar, وزير, wazīr; fa, وزیر, vazīr), or wazir, is a high-ranking political advisor or minister in the near east. The Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called '' katib'' (secretary), who was ...
'' of the Empire, took part in Alp Arslan’s campaign in the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historica ...
. The same year, Malik-Shah was married to
Terken Khatun, the daughter of the
Karakhanid khan
Ibrahim Tamghach-Khan. In 1066, Alp Arslan arranged a ceremony near
Merv
Merv ( tk, Merw, ', مرو; fa, مرو, ''Marv''), also known as the Merve Oasis, formerly known as Alexandria ( grc-gre, Ἀλεξάνδρεια), Antiochia in Margiana ( grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐν τῇ Μαργιανῇ) and ...
, where he appointed Malik-Shah as his heir and also granted him Isfahan as a
fief
A fief (; la, feudum) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a form ...
.
In 1071, Malik-Shah took part in the
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
n campaign of his father, and stayed in
Aleppo when his father fought the
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
emperor
Romanos IV Diogenes
Romanos IV Diogenes ( Greek: Ρωμανός Διογένης), Latinized as Romanus IV Diogenes, was a member of the Byzantine military aristocracy who, after his marriage to the widowed empress Eudokia Makrembolitissa, was crowned Byzantine E ...
at
Manzikert. In 1072, Malik-Shah and Nizam al-Mulk accompanied Alp-Arslan during his campaign in
Transoxiana against the Karakhanids. However, Alp-Arslan was badly wounded during his expedition, and Malik-Shah shortly took over the army. Alp-Arslan died some days later, and Malik-Shah was declared as the new ''sultan'' of the empire.
Reign
War of succession
However, right after Malik-Shah's accession, his uncle
Qavurt
Kara Arslan Ahmad Qavurt (died 1073), better simply known as Qavurt (also spelled Kavurt) was a Seljuq prince. Upon his brother's death, he led an unsuccessful rebellion against his nephew in an attempt to gain the Seljuk throne.
Background
T ...
claimed the throne for himself and sent Malik-Shah a message which said: "I am the eldest brother, and you are a youthful son; I have the greater right to my brother Alp-Arslan's inheritance." Malik-Shah then replied by sending the following message: "A brother does not inherit when there is a son.". This message enraged Qavurt, who thereafter occupied Isfahan. In 1073 a
battle
A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and for ...
took place near
Hamadan, which lasted three days. Qavurt was accompanied by his seven sons, and his army consisted of
Turkmens
Turkmens ( tk, , , , ; historically "the Turkmen"), sometimes referred to as Turkmen Turks ( tk, , ), are a Turkic ethnic group native to Central Asia, living mainly in Turkmenistan, northern and northeastern regions of Iran and north-weste ...
, while the army of Malik-Shah consisted of ''
ghulams'' ("military slaves") and contingents of
Kurdish and
Arab
The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
troops.
During the battle, the Turks of Malik-Shah's army mutinied against him, but he nevertheless managed to defeat and capture Qavurt. Qavurt then begged for mercy and in return promised to retire to
Oman
Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of ...
. However, Nizam al-Mulk declined the offer, claiming that sparing him was an indication of weakness. After some time, Qavurt was strangled to death with a bowstring, while two of his sons were blinded. After having dealt with that problem, Malik-Shah appointed
Qutlugh-Tegin as the governor of
Fars and
Sav-Tegin
Savtegin (died, d. 1084) was a prominent emir of the early Seljuk Empire, during the reigns of Tughril I, Alp Arslan, and Malik-Shah I. His full name in Arabic, as given by Munejjim-bashi Ahmed Dede, Münejjim Bāshī Ahmad Effendi, was 'Imād ad- ...
as the governor of
Kerman.
Warfare with Karakhanids
Malik-Shah then turned his attention towards the Karakhanids, who had after the death of Alp-Arslan invaded
Tukharistan
Bactria (; Bactrian: , ), or Bactriana, was an ancient region in Central Asia in Amu Darya's middle stream, stretching north of the Hindu Kush, west of the Pamirs and south of the Gissar range, covering the northern part of Afghanistan, sou ...
, which was ruled by Malik-Shah's brother Ayaz, who was unable to repel the Karakhanids and was killed by them. Malik-Shah eventually managed to repel the Karakhanids and captured
Tirmidh, giving Sav-Tegin the key of the city. Malik-Shah then appointed his other brother
Shihab al-Din Tekish as the ruler of Tukharistan and
Balkh
), named for its green-tiled ''Gonbad'' ( prs, گُنبَد, dome), in July 2001
, pushpin_map=Afghanistan#Bactria#West Asia
, pushpin_relief=yes
, pushpin_label_position=bottom
, pushpin_mapsize=300
, pushpin_map_caption=Location in Afghanistan ...
. During the same period, the
Ghaznavid ruler
Ibrahim
Ibrahim ( ar, إبراهيم, links=no ') is the Arabic name for Abraham, a Biblical patriarch and prophet in Islam.
For the Islamic view of Ibrahim, see Abraham in Islam.
Ibrahim may also refer to:
* Ibrahim (name), a name (and list of people w ...
was seizing Seljuk territory in northern
Khorasan
Khorasan may refer to:
* Greater Khorasan, a historical region which lies mostly in modern-day northern/northwestern Afghanistan, northeastern Iran, southern Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan
* Khorasan Province, a pre-2004 province of Ira ...
, but was defeated by Malik-Shah, who then made peace with the latter and gave his daughter
Gawhar Khatun
Gawhar Khatun ( fa, گوهر خاتون, also spelled Gowhar, Gohar, Jauhar, and Jawhar), known in other sources as Mahd-i Iraq (“the bride from Persian Iraq”), was a Seljuq princess who during an unknown date married the Ghaznavid '' Sultan ...
in marriage to Ibrahim's son
Mas'ud III
Mas'ūd III of Ghazna (b. 1061 – d. 1115), was a sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire and son of Ibrahim of Ghazna.
Life
Mas'ūd was born in 1061 in Ghazni.
Reign
Mas'ud was sultan for 16 years. In 1112, Mas'ūd III built the Palace of Sultan M ...
.
Other wars
In 1074, Malik-Shah ordered the Turkic warlord Arghar to restore what he had destroyed during his raids in the territory of the
Shirvanshah Fariburz I
Fariburz ibn Sallar ( fa, فریبرز بن سالار), better simply known as Fariburz I (), was the sixteenth Shah of Shirvan, ruling from 1063 to 1096. His reign saw many major political balance changes in Caucasus, including expansion by the ...
. During the same year, he appointed Qavurt's son Rukn al-Dawla Sultan-Shah as the ruler of Kerman. One year later, Malik-Shah sent an army under Sav-Tegin to
Arran, which was ruled by the
Shaddadid ruler
Fadlun III. Sav-Tegin managed to easily conquer the region, thus ending Shaddadid rule. Malik-Shah then gave
Gorgan to Fadlun III as a fief. Throughout Malik's reign new institutions of learning were established and it was during this time that the
Jalali calendar
The Jalali calendar is a solar calendar, was compiled during the reign of Jalaluddin Malik-Shah I of Seljuk by the order of Nizam al-Mulk and the place of observation were the cities of Isfahan (the capital of the Seljuks), Rey, and Nishapur. ...
was reformed at the
Isfahan observatory. In 1086–87, he led an expedition to capture
Edessa,
Manbij,
Aleppo,
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (; grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου, ''Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou'', Learned ; also Syrian Antioch) grc-koi, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπ� ...
and
Latakia. During this expedition, he appointed
Aq Sunqur governor of Aleppo and received homage of the Arab emir of
Shaizar, Nasir ibn Ali ibn Munquidh. In 1089, Malik-Shah captured
Samarkand with the support of the local clergy, and imprisoned its Karakhanid ruler Ahmad Khan ibn Khizr, who was the nephew of Terken Khatun. He then marched to
Semirechye
Zhetysu, or Jeti-Suu ( kk, , Жетісу, pronounced ; ky, ''Jeti-Suu'', (), meaning "seven rivers"; also transcribed ''Zhetisu'', ''Jetisuw'', ''Jetysu'', ''Jeti-su'', ''Jity-su'', ''Жетысу'',, United States National Geospatial-I ...
, and made the Karakhanid Harun Khan ibn Sulayman, the ruler of
Kashgar and
Khotan, acknowledge him as his suzerain.
Domestic policy and Ismailis
In 1092,
Nizam al-Mulk was assassinated near Sihna, on the road to
Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon ...
, by a man disguised as a
Sufi
Sufism ( ar, ''aṣ-ṣūfiyya''), also known as Tasawwuf ( ''at-taṣawwuf''), is a mystic body of religious practice, found mainly within Sunni Islam but also within Shia Islam, which is characterized by a focus on Islamic spirituality, r ...
. As the assassin was immediately cut down by Nizam's bodyguard, it became impossible to establish with certainty who had sent him. One theory had it that he was an
Assassin, since these regularly made attempts on the lives of Seljuk officials and rulers during the 11th century. Another theory had it that the attack had been instigated by Malik-Shah, who may have grown tired of his overmighty vizier. After Nizam al-Mulk's death, Malik-Shah appointed another Persian named
Taj al-Mulk Abu'l Ghana'im as his vizier. Malik-Shah then went to Baghdad and decided to depose
al-Muqtadi and sent him the following message: "You must relinquish Baghdad to me, and depart to any land you choose." This was because Malik-Shah wanted to appoint his grandson (or nephew) Ja'far as the new caliph.
As
Sunni Muslims, the Sultan persecuted
Shiites, in particular, the
Ismailis of
Hassan ibn Sabbah. Followers of Sabbah managed to occupy the
Alamut fortress near
Qazvin
Qazvin (; fa, قزوین, , also Romanized as ''Qazvīn'', ''Qazwin'', ''Kazvin'', ''Kasvin'', ''Caspin'', ''Casbin'', ''Casbeen'', or ''Ghazvin'') is the largest city and capital of the Province of Qazvin in Iran. Qazvin was a capital of the ...
, and the army under the command of the emir Arslan-Tash, sent by Malik Shah, could not recapture it. The Sultan's
ghilman
Ghilman (singular ar, غُلاَم ',Other standardized transliterations: '' / ''. . plural ')Other standardized transliterations: '' / ''. . were slave-soldiers and/or mercenaries in the armies throughout the Islamic world, such as the Safavi ...
, Kizil Sarug, besieged the Daru fortress in
Kuhistan, but ceased hostilities in connection with the death of Malik Shah on November 19, 1092, possibly due to poisoning.
Death and aftermath
Malik-Shah died on 19 November 1092 while he was hunting. He was most likely poisoned by the caliph or the supporters of Nizam al-Mulk. Under the orders of Terken Khatun, Malik-Shah's body was taken back to Isfahan, where it was buried in a
madrasa
Madrasa (, also , ; Arabic: مدرسة , pl. , ) is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, secular or religious (of any religion), whether for elementary instruction or higher learning. The word is variously transliterated '' ...
.
Upon his death, the Seljuk Empire fell into chaos, as rival successors and regional governors carved up their empire and waged war against each other. The situation within the Seljuk lands was further complicated by the beginning of the
First Crusade
The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades, initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Islamic ...
, which detached large portions of Syria and Palestine from Muslim control in 1098 and 1099. The success of the First Crusade is at least in part attributable to the political confusion which resulted from Malik-Shah's death.
Family
One of his wives was
Terken Khatun. She was the daughter of
Tamghach Khan Ibrahim. She was born in 1053. They married in 1065. She had five sons, Dawud, who died in 1082, Ahmed, who died in 1088–9, aged eleven, Sultan
Mahmud I, born in 1087–8, Abu'l-Qasim, who died in childhood, and another son who died in childhood, and was buried in Ray.
She died in 1094.
Another of his wives was
Zubayda Khatun. She was born in 1056.
She was the daughter of Yaquti, and the granddaughter of
Chaghri Beg. She was the mother of Malik-Shah's eldest son, Sultan
Barkiyaruq. She died in 1099.
One of his concubines
was Taj al-Din Khatun Safariyya, also known as Bushali.
She was the mother of Sultans
Muhammad Tapar and
Ahmad Sanjar, and another son who died in childhood, and was buried in Ray.
She died in Merv in 1121.
Two other sons, whose mothers are unknown were Tughril and Amir Khumarin, who was born with white hairs over his body and white eyelashes.
One of his daughters,
Mah-i Mulk Khatun, whose mother was Terken Khatun, married Abbasid Caliph
Al-Muqtadi in 1082.
Another daughter, Sitara Khatun, was married to
Garshasp II, son of
Ali ibn Faramurz
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam. ...
. Another daughter married Najm al-Daula, son of Shahriyar ibn Qarin. Another daughter was married by Sanjar to the Ispahbud Taj al-Multk Mardavij, son of Ali ibn Mardavij. Another daughter, Terken Khatun, was married to the Kara-Khanid Muhammad Arslan Khan. Their son Rukn al-Din Mahmud Khan, succeeded Sanjar in Khurasan. Another daughter,
Gawhar Khatun
Gawhar Khatun ( fa, گوهر خاتون, also spelled Gowhar, Gohar, Jauhar, and Jawhar), known in other sources as Mahd-i Iraq (“the bride from Persian Iraq”), was a Seljuq princess who during an unknown date married the Ghaznavid '' Sultan ...
, was married to
Mas'ud III of Ghazni
Mas'ūd III of Ghazna (b. 1061 – d. 1115), was a sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire and son of Ibrahim of Ghazna.
Life
Mas'ūd was born in 1061 in Ghazni.
Reign
Mas'ud was sultan for 16 years. In 1112, Mas'ūd III built the Palace of Sultan M ...
. Another daughter,
Ismah Khatun,
married Abbasid Caliph
Al-Mustazhir in 1109.
Legacy
The 18th century English historian
Edward Gibbon
Edward Gibbon (; 8 May 173716 January 1794) was an English historian, writer, and member of parliament. His most important work, '' The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788, i ...
wrote of him:
Personality
Malik-Shah displayed substantial interest in science, art and literature.
The
Isfahan Observatory or Malikshah Observatory was constructed during his reign, closing shortly after his death in
1092
Year 1092 ( MXCII) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Byzantine Empire
* Summer – Emperor Alexios I (Komnenos) bribes one of Kilij Arslan's (sult ...
.
It was from the work at the observatory that the
Jalali Calendar
The Jalali calendar is a solar calendar, was compiled during the reign of Jalaluddin Malik-Shah I of Seljuk by the order of Nizam al-Mulk and the place of observation were the cities of Isfahan (the capital of the Seljuks), Rey, and Nishapur. ...
was adopted.
He thought highly of the art of architecture as well, as he enjoyed building new and splendid mosques in his capital,
Isfahan. He was religiously tolerant which is supported by the fact that during his reign, subjects of the Seljuk Empire enjoyed internal peace and religious tolerance. Malik-Shah also showed lenience towards exquisite poetry as his reign is also memorable for the poetry of
Omar Khayyam.
[
Despite being arguably the most powerful monarch of his era, it is believed that Malik-Shah was unpretentious and modest. The legend has it that during the years that were hugely successful for Seljuks on all fronts, Malik-Shah, overwhelmed by the imperial might of his dynasty, used to climb to the top of a hill and say the following: "Oh Almighty God, I will somehow cope with the problem of hunger, please save me from the threat of abundance".
Malik Shah did not spend as much time on campaign as his prominent predecessor ]Tughril
Abu Talib Muhammad Tughril ibn Mika'il ( fa, ابوطالب محمد تغریل بن میکائیل), better known as Tughril (; also spelled Toghril), was a Turkmen"The defeat in August 1071 of the Byzantine emperor Romanos Diogenes
by the Turk ...
or his father Alp Arslan did. Isfahan became securely established as his chief city of residence, although in the latter years of his rule Malik Shah preferred to winter in Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon ...
. Whereas Alp Arslan had spent just over a year out of his decade-long reign in Isfahan, Malik Shah resided there for more than half of his rule. Isfahan also served as the burial site of Malik Shah, his descendants, as well as celebrated bureaucrats of the sultanate like Nizam al-Mulk. Malik Shah’s decision of residing in a capital far away from the centers of Turkmen settlement around Merv
Merv ( tk, Merw, ', مرو; fa, مرو, ''Marv''), also known as the Merve Oasis, formerly known as Alexandria ( grc-gre, Ἀλεξάνδρεια), Antiochia in Margiana ( grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐν τῇ Μαργιανῇ) and ...
, Rayy, Hamadan, and Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan (, ; az, Azərbaycan ), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, , also sometimes officially called the Azerbaijan Republic is a transcontinental country located at the boundary of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is a part of th ...
could well be explained by the increasing distance between him and his nomadic subjects.
References
Sources
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Malik-Shah 01
Seljuk rulers
1055 births
1092 deaths
11th-century Turkic people
People of the Nizari–Seljuk wars