Magnus Olafsson (
Old Norse
Old Norse, Old Nordic, or Old Scandinavian, is a stage of development of North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and their overseas settlement ...
: ''Magnús Óláfsson'',
Norwegian: ''Magnus Olavsson''; 1073 – 24 August 1103), better known as Magnus Barefoot (Old Norse: ''Magnús berfœttr'', Norwegian: ''Magnus Berrføtt''), was
King of Norway
The Norwegian monarch is the head of state of Norway, which is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy with a parliamentary system. The Norwegian monarchy can trace its line back to the reign of Harald Fairhair and the previous petty kingd ...
(being Magnus III) from 1093 until his death in 1103. His reign was marked by aggressive military campaigns and conquest, particularly in the Norse-dominated parts of the
British Isles
The British Isles are a group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe, consisting of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Inner and Outer Hebrides, the Northern Isl ...
, where he extended his rule to the
Kingdom of the Isles
The Kingdom of the Isles consisted of the Isle of Man, the Hebrides and the islands of the Firth of Clyde from the 9th to the 13th centuries AD. The islands were known to the Norse as the , or "Southern Isles" as distinct from the or North ...
and
Dublin
Dublin (; , or ) is the capital and largest city of Ireland. On a bay at the mouth of the River Liffey, it is in the province of Leinster, bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, a part of the Wicklow Mountains range. At the 2016 ...
.
As the only son of King
Olaf Kyrre, Magnus was
proclaimed king in southeastern Norway shortly after his father's death in 1093. In the north his claim was contested by his cousin,
Haakon Magnusson (son of King
Magnus Haraldsson), and the two co-ruled uneasily until Haakon's death in 1095. Disgruntled members of the nobility refused to recognise Magnus after his cousin's death, but the insurrection was short-lived. After securing his position domestically, Magnus campaigned around the
Irish Sea
The Irish Sea or , gv, Y Keayn Yernagh, sco, Erse Sie, gd, Muir Èireann , Ulster-Scots: ''Airish Sea'', cy, Môr Iwerddon . is an extensive body of water that separates the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. It is linked to the C ...
from 1098 to 1099. He raided through
Orkney
Orkney (; sco, Orkney; on, Orkneyjar; nrn, Orknøjar), also known as the Orkney Islands, is an archipelago in the Northern Isles of Scotland, situated off the north coast of the island of Great Britain. Orkney is 10 miles (16 km) north ...
, the
Hebrides
The Hebrides (; gd, Innse Gall, ; non, Suðreyjar, "southern isles") are an archipelago off the west coast of the Scottish mainland. The islands fall into two main groups, based on their proximity to the mainland: the Inner and Outer Hebri ...
and
Mann
Mann may refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
* Mann (chess), a variant chess piece which moves as a king
* ''Mann'' (film), a 1999 Bollywood motion picture
* ''Mann'' (magazine), a Norwegian magazine
* Mann Theatres, a theatre chain corp ...
(the
Northern
Northern may refer to the following:
Geography
* North, a point in direction
* Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe
* Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States
* Northern Province, Sri Lanka
* Northern Range, a r ...
and Southern Isles), and ensured Norwegian control by a treaty with the Scottish king. Based on Mann during his time in the west, Magnus had a number of forts and houses built on the island and probably also obtained suzerainty of
Galloway
Galloway ( ; sco, Gallowa; la, Gallovidia) is a region in southwestern Scotland comprising the historic counties of Wigtownshire and Kirkcudbrightshire. It is administered as part of the council area of Dumfries and Galloway.
A native or ...
. He sailed to Wales later in his expedition, winning control of
Anglesey
Anglesey (; cy, (Ynys) Môn ) is an island off the north-west coast of Wales. It forms a principal area known as the Isle of Anglesey, that includes Holy Island across the narrow Cymyran Strait and some islets and skerries. Anglesey island ...
(and possibly
Gwynedd
Gwynedd (; ) is a county and preserved county (latter with differing boundaries; includes the Isle of Anglesey) in the north-west of Wales. It shares borders with Powys, Conwy County Borough, Denbighshire, Anglesey over the Menai Strait, an ...
's submission) after repelling the
invading Norman forces from the island.
Following his return to Norway, Magnus led campaigns into
Dalsland and
Västergötland
Västergötland (), also known as West Gothland or the Latinized version Westrogothia in older literature, is one of the 25 traditional non-administrative provinces of Sweden (''landskap'' in Swedish), situated in the southwest of Sweden.
Väs ...
in Sweden, claiming an ancient border with the country. After two unsuccessful invasions and a number of skirmishes Danish king
Eric Evergood initiated peace talks among the three Scandinavian monarchs, fearing that the conflict would get out of hand. Magnus concluded peace with the Swedes in 1101 by agreeing to marry
Margaret
Margaret is a female first name, derived via French () and Latin () from grc, μαργαρίτης () meaning "pearl". The Greek is borrowed from Persian.
Margaret has been an English name since the 11th century, and remained popular through ...
, daughter of the Swedish king
Inge Stenkilsson. In return, Magnus gained Dalsland as part of her dowry. He set out on his final western campaign in 1102, and may have sought to conquer Ireland. Magnus entered into an alliance with Irish king
Muirchertach Ua Briain
Muircheartach Ua Briain (old spelling: Muirchertach Ua Briain) (also known as Murtaugh O'Brien) (c. 1050 – c. 10 March 1119), son of Toirdelbach Ua Briain and great-grandson of Brian Boru, was King of Munster and later self-declared High Ki ...
of
Munster
Munster ( gle, an Mhumhain or ) is one of the provinces of Ireland, in the south of Ireland. In early Ireland, the Kingdom of Munster was one of the kingdoms of Gaelic Ireland ruled by a "king of over-kings" ( ga, rí ruirech). Following t ...
, who recognised Magnus' control of Dublin. Under unclear circumstances, while obtaining food supplies for his return to Norway, Magnus was killed in an ambush by the
Ulaid
Ulaid (Old Irish, ) or Ulaidh ( Modern Irish, ) was a Gaelic over-kingdom in north-eastern Ireland during the Middle Ages made up of a confederation of dynastic groups. Alternative names include Ulidia, which is the Latin form of Ulaid, and in ...
the next year; territorial advances characterising his reign ended with his death.
Into modern times, his legacy has remained more pronounced in Ireland and Scotland than in his native Norway. Among the few domestic developments known during his reign, Norway developed a more centralised rule and moved closer to the European model of church organisation. Popularly portrayed as a
Viking
Vikings ; non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway and Sweden),
who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded and se ...
warrior rather than a medieval monarch, Magnus was the last Norwegian king to fall in battle abroad, and he may in some respects be considered the final Viking king.
Background
Most information about Magnus is gleaned from Norse
saga
is a series of science fantasy role-playing video games by Square Enix. The series originated on the Game Boy in 1989 as the creation of Akitoshi Kawazu at Square. It has since continued across multiple platforms, from the Super NES to th ...
s and chronicles, which began appearing during the 12th century. The most important sources still available are the Norwegian chronicles ''Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium'' by
Theodoric the Monk
Theodoric the Monk ( la, Theodoricus monachus; also ''Tjodrik munk''; in Old Norse his name was most likely ''Þórir'') was a 12th-century Norwegian Benedictine monk, perhaps at the Nidarholm Abbey. He may be identical with either Bishop Tore o ...
and the anonymous ''
Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum
''Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum'' ( Icelandic for "''Summary of the Norwegian Kings' Sagas''"), often shortened to ''Ágrip'', is a history of the kings of Norway. Written in Old Norse, it is, along with the ''Historia Norvegiæ'', one of the N ...
'' (or simply ''Ágrip'') from the 1180s and the
Iceland
Iceland ( is, Ísland; ) is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the Arctic Ocean. Iceland is the most sparsely populated country in Europe. Iceland's capital and largest city is Reykjavík, which (along with its ...
ic sagas ''
Heimskringla
''Heimskringla'' () is the best known of the Old Norse kings' sagas. It was written in Old Norse in Iceland by the poet and historian Snorre Sturlason (1178/79–1241) 1230. The name ''Heimskringla'' was first used in the 17th century, derive ...
'' (by
Snorri Sturluson
Snorri Sturluson ( ; ; 1179 – 22 September 1241) was an Icelandic historian, poet, and politician. He was elected twice as lawspeaker of the Icelandic parliament, the Althing. He is commonly thought to have authored or compiled portions of th ...
), ''
Morkinskinna'' and ''
Fagrskinna'', which date to about the 1220s. While the later sagas are the most detailed accounts, they are also generally considered the least reliable. Additional information about Magnus, in particular his campaigns, is found in sources from the British Isles, which included contemporary accounts.
Magnus was born around the end of 1073 as the only son of King
Olaf Kyrre. His mother's identity is uncertain; she is identified as Tora Arnesdatter (daughter of otherwise-unknown Arne Låge) in ''Morkinskinna'' and ''Fagrskinna'', as Tora Joansdatter in ''Heimskringla'', ''
Hrokkinskinna'' and ''
Hryggjarstykki''
[Førsund (2012) p. 14] and an unnamed daughter of "Ragnvald jarl" from
Godøy,
Sunnmøre in the genealogical text ''Af en gl. ætleg'' (commonly known as ''Sunnmørsættleggen''). The historical consensus (including
P. A. Munch
Peter Andreas Munch (15 December 1810 – 25 May 1863), usually known as P. A. Munch, was a Norwegian historian, known for his work on the medieval history of Norway. Munch's scholarship included Norwegian archaeology, geography, ethnograph ...
and
Claus Krag)
has favoured Tora Arnesdatter, but the other claims have also gained support. Anders Stølen has argued that she was a daughter of Ragnvald jarl (who has been identified as
Rognvald Brusason,
Earl of Orkney
Earl of Orkney, historically Jarl of Orkney, is a title of nobility encompassing the archipelagoes of Orkney and Shetland, which comprise the Northern Isles of Scotland. Originally founded by Norse invaders, the status of the rulers of the Nort ...
by Ola Kvalsund), while historian Randi Helene Førsund has considered Tora Joansdatter more likely.
Magnus grew up among the ''
hird'' (royal retinue) of his father in
Nidaros
Nidaros, Niðarós or Niðaróss () was the medieval name of Trondheim when it was the capital of Norway's first Christian kings. It was named for its position at the mouth (Old Norse: ''óss'') of the River Nid (the present-day Nidelva).
Althou ...
(modern
Trondheim
Trondheim ( , , ; sma, Tråante), historically Kaupangen, Nidaros and Trondhjem (), is a city and municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway. As of 2020, it had a population of 205,332, was the third most populous municipality in Norway, an ...
), ''de facto'' capital of Norway at the time. His father's cousin, the chieftain Tore Ingeridsson, was foster-father to Magnus. In his youth, he was apparently more similar to his warlike grandfather, King
Harald Hardrada
Harald Sigurdsson (; – 25 September 1066), also known as Harald III of Norway and given the epithet ''Hardrada'' (; modern no, Hardråde, roughly translated as "stern counsel" or "hard ruler") in the sagas, was King of Norway from 1046 t ...
, than to his father (who bore the
byname
An epithet (, ), also byname, is a descriptive term (word or phrase) known for accompanying or occurring in place of a name and having entered common usage. It has various shades of meaning when applied to seemingly real or fictitious people, di ...
''Kyrre'': "the Peaceful"). According to Snorri Sturluson, Magnus was considered handsome and gifted in learning; although he was shorter in stature than his grandfather Harald, he was reportedly known as "Magnus the Tall".
Magnus' more-common byname, "Barefoot" or "Barelegs", was—according to Snorri—due to his adopting the
Gaelic
Gaelic is an adjective that means "pertaining to the Gaels". As a noun it refers to the group of languages spoken by the Gaels, or to any one of the languages individually. Gaelic languages are spoken in Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man, an ...
dress of the Irish and Scots: a short tunic, which left the lower legs bare.
Another version (by Danish historian
Saxo Grammaticus
Saxo Grammaticus (c. 1150 – c. 1220), also known as Saxo cognomine Longus, was a Danish historian, theologian and author. He is thought to have been a clerk or secretary to Absalon, Archbishop of Lund, the main advisor to Valdemar I of Denmark ...
) maintains that he acquired the nickname because he was forced to flee from a Swedish attack in his bare feet,
while a third explains that he rode barefoot (like the Irish).
Due to Magnus' aggressive nature and his campaigns abroad, he also had the nickname ''styrjaldar-Magnús''
("Warrior Magnus"
or "Magnus the Strife-lover").
[''Magnus Barefoot's saga'', chapter 18.]
Reign
Establishing authority
Norway had experienced a long period of peace during the reign of Magnus' father, Olaf. Magnus may have been present when Olaf died in
Rånrike
Ranrike (Old Norse ''Ránríki'') was the old name for a part of Viken, corresponding to southeast Norway (Oslofjord area) and the northern half of the modern Swedish (Norwegian until 1658) province of Bohuslän (roughly identical with ''Álfheimr' ...
,
Båhuslen (southeastern Norway) in September 1093 and was probably
proclaimed king at the
Borgarting,
the
thing (assembly) of the adjacent region of
Viken
Viken may refer to:
*Viken, Scandinavia, a historical region
*Viken (county), a Norwegian county established in 2020
*Viken, Sweden, a bimunicipal locality in Skåne County, Sweden
*Viken (lake), a lake in Sweden, part of the part of the Göta cana ...
later that month. When Magnus became king, he already had a network of support among the Norwegian aristocracy. Although sources are unclear about the first year of his reign, it is apparent that Magnus' focus was on the west (towards the British Isles). Since conditions were chaotic in Norse-dominated parts of the British Isles since the death of
Thorfinn the Mighty, this provided Magnus an opportunity to intervene in local power struggles. According to some accounts, he made his first expedition west in 1093–94 (or 1091–92), helping
Scottish king
Donald Bane to conquer
Edinburgh
Edinburgh ( ; gd, Dùn Èideann ) is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 Council areas of Scotland, council areas. Historically part of the county of Midlothian (interchangeably Edinburghshire before 1921), it is located in Lothian ...
and the
Scottish throne
The monarch of Scotland was the head of state of the Kingdom of Scotland. According to tradition, the first King of Scots was Kenneth I MacAlpin (), who founded the state in 843. Historically, the Kingdom of Scotland is thought to have gr ...
and possibly gaining control of the Southern Isles (''Suðreyjar'') in return. It is unclear if this early expedition took place, since it is not directly referenced in early reliable sources or the sagas.
Magnus was opposed by his cousin
Haakon Magnusson, son of King Olaf's brother and short-lived co-ruler King
Magnus Haraldsson, who claimed half the kingdom. Haakon was proclaimed king in the
Uplands
Upland or Uplands may refer to:
Geography
*Hill, an area of higher land, generally
*Highland, an area of higher land divided into low and high points
*Upland and lowland, conditional descriptions of a plain based on elevation above sea level
*I ...
and at the
Øyrating, the thing of
Trøndelag
Trøndelag (; sma, Trööndelage) is a county in the central part of Norway. It was created in 1687, then named Trondhjem County ( no, Trondhjems Amt); in 1804 the county was split into Nord-Trøndelag and Sør-Trøndelag by the King of Denma ...
(in central Norway). According to Førsund, Haakon took control of the entire portion of the kingdom once held by his father (also including the
Frostating
The Frostating was an early Norwegian court. It was one of the four major Thing (assembly), Things in medieval Norway. The Frostating had its seat at Tinghaugen in what is now the municipality of Frosta in Trøndelag county, Norway. The name ...
—the thing of
Hålogaland in
northern Norway
Northern Norway ( nb, Nord-Norge, , nn, Nord-Noreg; se, Davvi-Norga) is a geographical region of Norway, consisting of the two northernmost counties Nordland and Troms og Finnmark, in total about 35% of the Norwegian mainland. Some of the lar ...
—and the
Gulating
Gulating ( non, Gulaþing) was one of the first Norwegian legislative assemblies, or '' things,'' and also the name of a present-day law court of western Norway. The practice of periodic regional assemblies predates recorded history, and was ...
—the thing of
western Norway
Western Norway ( nb, Vestlandet, Vest-Norge; nn, Vest-Noreg) is the region along the Atlantic coast of southern Norway. It consists of the counties Rogaland, Vestland, and Møre og Romsdal. The region has no official or political-administrativ ...
). Haakon secured support by relieving farmers of taxes and duties (including taxes dating back to the Danish rule of
Sweyn Knutsson during the early 1030s),
while Magnus pursued costly policies and demanded lengthy military service. After Magnus settled at the new royal estate in Nidaros for the winter of 1094–95, Haakon also travelled to the city and took up residence at the old royal estate. Their relationship became increasingly tense, culminating when Haakon saw Magnus'
longships fully rigged at sea. Haakon summoned the Øyrating in response, leading Magnus to sail southwards. Haakon attempted to intercept Magnus by travelling south to Viken by land (over the mountains of
Dovrefjell), but he died unexpectedly while hunting in February 1095.
The strongman behind Haakon's monarchy had been his foster-father
Tore Tordsson ("Steigar-Tore"), who refused to recognise Magnus as king after Haakon's death. With Egil Aslaksson and other noblemen, he had the otherwise-unknown Sweyn Haraldsson set up as a
pretender
A pretender is someone who claims to be the rightful ruler of a country although not recognized as such by the current government. The term is often used to suggest that a claim is not legitimate.Curley Jr., Walter J. P. ''Monarchs-in-Waiting'' ...
.
Although later sagas maintain that Sweyn was Danish, some modern historians have speculated that he may have been a son of Harald Hardrada.
The revolt was based in the Uplands, but also gained support from noblemen elsewhere in the country. After several weeks of fighting, Magnus captured Tore and his supporters and had them hanged on the island of Vambarholm (outside
Hamnøy
Hamnøy or Hamnøya is a small fishing village in Moskenes Municipality in Nordland county, Norway. It is located on the eastern side of the island of Moskenesøya, about northeast of the village of Reine, along the Vestfjorden. Hamnøy was pre ...
,
Lofoten
Lofoten () is an archipelago and a traditional district in the county of Nordland, Norway. Lofoten has distinctive scenery with dramatic mountains and peaks, open sea and sheltered bays, beaches and untouched lands. There are two towns, Svolv� ...
, in northern Norway). Magnus was reportedly furious because he could not pardon Egil, a potentially useful, young and resourceful nobleman. As king, his honour would only allow a pardon if other noblemen pleaded for Egil's life; this did not happen.
Magnus' final domestic dispute was with the noble Sveinke Steinarsson, who refused to recognise him as king. Although Sveinke reduced piracy in Viken, he was forced into exile for three years after negotiating with Magnus' men. Since piracy increased soon after Sveinke's departure (possibly encouraged by Sveinke himself), Magnus met him in the Danish province of
Halland
Halland () is one of the traditional provinces of Sweden (''landskap''), on the western coast of Götaland, southern Sweden. It borders Västergötland, Småland, Scania and the sea of Kattegat. Until 1645 and the Second Treaty of Brömseb ...
to request his return to Norway. They reconciled; Sveinke became a loyal supporter of Magnus, now the undisputed king of Norway.
Other developments
Since the Norse sources (including the
skaldic verses which were the sagas' main sources) chiefly describe war-related matters, less is known about other events during the reigns of the early Norwegian kings. Snorri, for instance, wrote fifteen pages about Magnus and only two pages about Magnus' peaceful father Olaf Kyrre (despite Olaf's reign lasting almost three times longer than Magnus'). Modern historians have noted that this probably has made the image of kings like Magnus Barefoot one-sided (in Magnus' case, skewed towards his deeds as a warrior).
Magnus' rule was generally marked by Norway's increasing similarity to other European kingdoms. Royal rule became established, and he consolidated power through a network of powerful noblemen (some of whom were relatives); church organisation also developed.
The Nordic bishops belonged to the
Archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen until a year after Magnus' death (when the
Archdiocese of Lund
The Diocese of Lund ( sv, Lunds stift) is a diocese within the Church of Sweden which corresponds to the provinces of Blekinge and Skåne. There are 217 parishes within the diocese, the most significant number in any of the dioceses of the C ...
was formed); priests and bishops were largely foreigners from
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe ...
and
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...
. In reality, however, Magnus ruled the church in Norway.
Through
numismatics
Numismatics is the study or collection of currency, including coins, tokens, paper money, medals and related objects.
Specialists, known as numismatists, are often characterized as students or collectors of coins, but the discipline also inc ...
, it is known that minting reform began during Magnus' reign. The reform restored silver content in coins to around 90 percent, the level at Harald Hardrada's 1055 reform (''Haraldsslåtten'') which reduced silver content to about 30 percent (the remainder of the coin was copper). Coin size in Magnus' reform was reduced to .45 gram, half the previous weight. Although the silver value of a coin remained about the same, copper was not needed in coins.
First Irish Sea campaign
Magnus sought to re-establish Norwegian influence around the
Irish Sea
The Irish Sea or , gv, Y Keayn Yernagh, sco, Erse Sie, gd, Muir Èireann , Ulster-Scots: ''Airish Sea'', cy, Môr Iwerddon . is an extensive body of water that separates the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. It is linked to the C ...
. He attempted to install vassal king
Ingemund in the Southern Isles in 1097, but the latter was killed in a revolt.
It is unclear what Magnus' ultimate ambitions were, and the significance of his campaign has been downplayed by modern English historians. English chronicler
William of Malmesbury
William of Malmesbury ( la, Willelmus Malmesbiriensis; ) was the foremost English historian of the 12th century. He has been ranked among the most talented English historians since Bede. Modern historian C. Warren Hollister described him as " ...
believed that Magnus sought to capture the throne from
William II of England
William II ( xno, Williame; – 2 August 1100) was King of England from 26 September 1087 until his death in 1100, with powers over Normandy and influence in Scotland. He was less successful in extending control into Wales. The third so ...
(in common with the ambitions of his grandfather, Harald Hardrada).
[Oram (2011) p. 48] Historians have speculated that he wanted to establish an empire which included Scotland and Ireland, although most modern Norwegian and Scottish historians believe his chief aim was simply to control the Norse communities around the Irish Sea. While he may have been influenced by Ingemund's murder, the ''
Orkneyinga saga'' claims that Magnus was persuaded by a son of an Orkney earl,
Haakon Paulsson
Haakon may refer to:
Given names
* Haakon (given name)
* Håkon, modern Norwegian spelling of the name
* Håkan, Swedish spelling of the name
* Hakon, Danish spelling of the name
People
Norwegian royalty
* Haakon I of Norway (c. 920–961), ...
, who wanted an earldom for himself. It is also possible that Magnus wished to provide a realm outside Norway for his eight-year-old son
Sigurd
Sigurd ( non, Sigurðr ) or Siegfried (Middle High German: ''Sîvrit'') is a legendary hero of Germanic heroic legend, who killed a dragon and was later murdered. It is possible he was inspired by one or more figures from the Frankish Merovin ...
, who accompanied him.
Magnus sailed into the Western Sea in 1098, arriving in
Orkney
Orkney (; sco, Orkney; on, Orkneyjar; nrn, Orknøjar), also known as the Orkney Islands, is an archipelago in the Northern Isles of Scotland, situated off the north coast of the island of Great Britain. Orkney is 10 miles (16 km) north ...
with a large fleet. The ''
'' claim that he had 160 ships, but English chronicler
Orderic Vitalis
Orderic Vitalis ( la, Ordericus Vitalis; 16 February 1075 – ) was an English chronicler and Benedictine monk who wrote one of the great contemporary chronicles of 11th- and 12th-century Normandy and Anglo-Norman England. Modern historia ...
states that his fleet consisted of 60 ships. Based on this, P. A. Munch suggests an initial fleet of 160 ships, of which 100 were from the ''
leidang The institution known as ''leiðangr'' (Old Norse), ''leidang'' ( Norwegian), ''leding'' ( Danish), ''ledung'' ( Swedish), ''expeditio'' (Latin) or sometimes lething (English), was a form of conscription ( mass levy) to organize coastal fleets for s ...
'' (public levy) and returned shortly after arrival; the fleet accompanying Magnus southward in the campaigns consisted of 60 royal and baronial ships. According to Førsund, the low estimate of 120 men per ship means 8,000 men in the royal and baronial ships and 12,000 from the ''leidang'' ships. However, many historians believe that ship numbers in old naval campaign accounts are exaggerated.
After his arrival, Magnus began negotiations with Scottish and Irish kings about the ''hird'' and control of land in Scotland, Ireland and the surrounding islands. Upon arriving in Orkney, he sent the earls
Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson away to Norway as prisoners
on a ''leidang'' ship, took their sons Haakon Paulsson,
Magnus Erlendsson
Saint Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney, sometimes known as Magnus the Martyr, was Earl of Orkney from 1106 to about 1115.
Magnus's grandparents, Earl Thorfinn and his wife Ingibiorg Finnsdottir, had two sons, Erlend and Paul, who were twin ...
and Erling Erlendsson as hostages and installed his own son Sigurd as earl. Magnus then raided Scotland, the Southern Isles and
Lewis
Lewis may refer to:
Names
* Lewis (given name), including a list of people with the given name
* Lewis (surname), including a list of people with the surname
Music
* Lewis (musician), Canadian singer
* "Lewis (Mistreated)", a song by Radiohead ...
. Meeting no significant opposition, he continued pillaging the Hebridean islands of
Uist
"Uist" is a group of six islands and are part of the Outer Hebridean Archipelago, part of the Outer Hebrides of Scotland.
North Uist and South Uist ( or ; gd, Uibhist ) are two of the islands and are linked by causeways running via the isles ...
,
Skye
The Isle of Skye, or simply Skye (; gd, An t-Eilean Sgitheanach or ; sco, Isle o Skye), is the largest and northernmost of the major islands in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. The island's peninsulas radiate from a mountainous hub dominated ...
,
Tiree
Tiree (; gd, Tiriodh, ) is the most westerly island in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. The low-lying island, southwest of Coll, has an area of and a population of around 650.
The land is highly fertile, and crofting, alongside tourism, ...
,
Mull and
Islay
Islay ( ; gd, Ìle, sco, Ila) is the southernmost island of the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. Known as "The Queen of the Hebrides", it lies in Argyll just south west of Jura and around north of the Northern Irish coast. The island's capital ...
, and the peninsula of
Kintyre
Kintyre ( gd, Cinn Tìre, ) is a peninsula in western Scotland, in the southwest of Argyll and Bute. The peninsula stretches about , from the Mull of Kintyre in the south to East and West Loch Tarbert in the north. The region immediately nor ...
;
Iona
Iona (; gd, Ì Chaluim Chille (IPA: �iːˈxaɫ̪ɯimˈçiʎə, sometimes simply ''Ì''; sco, Iona) is a small island in the Inner Hebrides, off the Ross of Mull on the western coast of Scotland. It is mainly known for Iona Abbey, though ther ...
was visited, but not pillaged.
[Power (1986) p. 118] Magnus is also recorded as warring in Sanday, although the exact location is unclear (there are three islands with that name in the region). On entering the Irish Sea, he lost three ''leidang'' ships and 120 men in
Ulster
Ulster (; ga, Ulaidh or ''Cúige Uladh'' ; sco, label= Ulster Scots, Ulstèr or ''Ulster'') is one of the four traditional Irish provinces. It is made up of nine counties: six of these constitute Northern Ireland (a part of the United Kin ...
. Magnus then continued to
Mann
Mann may refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
* Mann (chess), a variant chess piece which moves as a king
* ''Mann'' (film), a 1999 Bollywood motion picture
* ''Mann'' (magazine), a Norwegian magazine
* Mann Theatres, a theatre chain corp ...
, where the earl
Óttar fell in a violent battle; he also chased (or captured)
Lagman Godredsson,
King of the Isles.
Mann came under Norwegian control, and Magnus and his men stayed on the island for a time. During his time there, he organised Norwegian immigration to the island and had several forts and houses built (or rebuilt) using timber from
Galloway
Galloway ( ; sco, Gallowa; la, Gallovidia) is a region in southwestern Scotland comprising the historic counties of Wigtownshire and Kirkcudbrightshire. It is administered as part of the council area of Dumfries and Galloway.
A native or ...
on the Scottish mainland. This implied he had subdued part of that region too,
[Power (1986) p. 119] reducing its chieftains to tributaries.
Magnus may have intended to invade Ireland next, only to find he had overextended himself.
He may have been approached by
Gruffudd ap Cynan
Gruffudd ap Cynan ( 1137), sometimes written as Gruffydd ap Cynan, was King of Gwynedd from 1081 until his death in 1137. In the course of a long and eventful life, he became a key figure in Welsh resistance to Norman rule, and was rememb ...
,
King of Gwynedd
Prior to the Conquest of Wales, completed in 1282, Wales consisted of a number of independent kingdoms, the most important being Gwynedd, Powys, Deheubarth (originally Ceredigion, Seisyllwg and Dyfed) and Morgannwg (Glywysing and Gwent). Boun ...
, who had been driven to Ireland by the
Norman earls
Hugh of Montgomery and
Hugh d'Avranches. With six ships (according to Orderic Vitalis),
Magnus steered towards
Anglesey
Anglesey (; cy, (Ynys) Môn ) is an island off the north-west coast of Wales. It forms a principal area known as the Isle of Anglesey, that includes Holy Island across the narrow Cymyran Strait and some islets and skerries. Anglesey island ...
in
Gwynedd
Gwynedd (; ) is a county and preserved county (latter with differing boundaries; includes the Isle of Anglesey) in the north-west of Wales. It shares borders with Powys, Conwy County Borough, Denbighshire, Anglesey over the Menai Strait, an ...
,
Wales
Wales ( cy, Cymru ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the Bristol Channel to the south. It had a population in ...
. Appearing off the coast at
Puffin Island, he interrupted a
Norman victory celebration after their defeat of the Gwynedd king
[Lloyd, J.E., ''A History of Wales; From the Norman Invasion to the Edwardian Conquest'', Barnes & Noble Publishing, Inc. 2004]—for the Welsh, "so opportunely it was ascribed to divine providence" according to historian Rosemary Power (although Magnus had not necessarily intended to side with them).
In the ensuing battle (known as the
Battle of Anglesey Sound
The Battle of Anglesey Sound was fought in June or July 1098 on the Menai Strait ("Anglesey Sound"), separating the island of Anglesey from mainland Wales. The battle was fought between Magnus Barefoot, King of Norway, and the Anglo-Norman earls ...
,
according to Power "the most widely reported event in the history of Magnus"),
Magnus shot Hugh of Montgomery dead with an arrow through his eye
and defeated the Norman forces.
[Oram (2011) p. 50] The sources indicate that Magnus regretted killing Montgomery, suggesting that he may have been interested in an alliance with the Normans. He abruptly returned to Mann with his men, leaving the Norman army weak and demoralized.
After this battle, Anglesey was considered the southern border of Norway. Gruffudd ap Cynan soon returned to the island, awarding Magnus gifts and honour (which may indicate that Gwynedd had capitulated).
[Duffy (1997) p. 110] The extension of Magnus' kingdom probably began to concern the English, who remembered
the invasion of Magnus' grandfather Harald Hardrada in 1066, war with Danish king
Sweyn Estridson
Sweyn Estridsson Ulfsson ( on, Sveinn Ástríðarson, da, Svend Estridsen; – 28 April 1076) was King of Denmark (being Sweyn II) from 1047 until his death in 1076. He was the son of Ulf the Earl, Ulf Thorgilsson and Estrid Svendsdatter, and t ...
in 1069–70 and the threat of invasion by
Cnut IV in 1085.
In Scotland internal fighting continued between rival kings, although King
Edgar
Edgar is a commonly used English given name, from an Anglo-Saxon name ''Eadgar'' (composed of '' ead'' "rich, prosperous" and '' gar'' "spear").
Like most Anglo-Saxon names, it fell out of use by the later medieval period; it was, however, r ...
had gained a slight advantage. Perhaps fearing to meet Magnus in battle after the internecine strife, according to the sagas Edgar—mistakenly called Malcolm—told Magnus he would renounce all Scottish claims to islands west of Scotland in exchange for peace. Magnus accepted the offer, which reportedly gave him every island a ship could reach with its rudder set. He gained recognition of his rule in the Southern Isles, including Kintyre after demonstrating that it should be included by sitting at the rudder of his ship as it was dragged across the narrow
isthmus
An isthmus (; ; ) is a narrow piece of land connecting two larger areas across an expanse of water by which they are otherwise separated. A tombolo is an isthmus that consists of a spit or bar, and a strait is the sea counterpart of an isthmus ...
at
Tarbert.
[Power (1986) p. 121] Historian
Richard Oram
Professor Richard D. Oram Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, F.S.A. (Scot.) is a Scotland, Scottish historian. He is a professor of medieval and environmental history at the University of Stirling and an honorary lecturer in history at the Univer ...
has claimed that references to a formal agreement with the Scottish king is a "post-Norwegian civil war confection" designed to legitimise the agenda of
Haakon IV Haakonsson. Rosemary Power agrees with the Norse sources that a formal agreement with the Scots was probably concluded,
and Seán Duffy notes that Edgar "happily ceded" the isles to Magnus since he had "little or no authority there in any case".
Magnus spent the winter in the Hebrides (continuing to fortify the islands), while many of his men returned to Norway.
There may have been talks at this time of Magnus marrying
Matilda
Matilda or Mathilda may refer to:
Animals
* Matilda (chicken) (1990–2006), World's Oldest Living Chicken record holder
* Matilda (horse) (1824–1846), British Thoroughbred racehorse
* Matilda, a dog of the professional wrestling tag-team The ...
, daughter of late Scottish king
Malcolm Canmore, but no marriage took place. Magnus returned to Norway a year later during the summer of 1099, although many of the islands he had conquered (such as Anglesey) were only nominally under Norwegian control.
Campaign in Sweden
After returning to Norway, Magnus turned east. By claiming an ancient border between Norway and Sweden, he set his course for the Swedish provinces of
Dalsland and
Västergötland
Västergötland (), also known as West Gothland or the Latinized version Westrogothia in older literature, is one of the 25 traditional non-administrative provinces of Sweden (''landskap'' in Swedish), situated in the southwest of Sweden.
Väs ...
in late 1099. In Magnus' view, the border with Sweden should be set further east: at the
Göta älv
The Göta älv (; "River of (the) Geats") is a river that drains lake Vänern into the Kattegat, at the city of Gothenburg, on the western coast of Sweden. It was formed at the end of the last glaciation, as an outflow channel from the Baltic Ic ...
river, through the
Vänern
Vänern ( , also , ) is the largest lake in Sweden, the largest lake in the European Union and the third-largest lake of all Europe after Ladoga and Onega in Russia. It is located in the provinces of Västergötland, Dalsland, and Värmlan ...
lake and north to the province of
Värmland
Värmland () also known as Wermeland, is a '' landskap'' (historical province) in west-central Sweden. It borders Västergötland, Dalsland, Dalarna, Västmanland, and Närke, and is bounded by Norway in the west. Latin name versions are '' ...
. He claimed all land west of Vänern (chiefly Dalsland). Swedish king
Inge Stenkilsson refuted the claim, and Magnus began a campaign in response. He raided his way through the forest villages, and Inge began amassing an army. When advised by his men to retreat, Magnus became more aggressive; he believed that once begun, a campaign should never be aborted. In a surprise nighttime attack, Magnus assaulted Swedish forces east of Göta älv at Fuxerna (near
Lilla Edet). After defeating the Swedes at Fuxerna, he conquered part of Västergötland. According to a
skald
A skald, or skáld (Old Norse: , later ; , meaning "poet"), is one of the often named poets who composed skaldic poetry, one of the two kinds of Old Norse poetry, the other being Eddic poetry, which is anonymous. Skaldic poems were traditional ...
, Magnus conquered "fifteen
hundreds from the
Geats
The Geats ( ; ang, gēatas ; non, gautar ; sv, götar ), sometimes called ''Goths'', were a large North Germanic tribe who inhabited ("land of the Geats") in modern southern Sweden from antiquity until the late Middle Ages. They are one of t ...
".
He had a wooden fort, surrounded by a moat, built on the island of
Kållandsö
Kållandsö is an island in lake Vänern in Sweden. With an area of 56.78 km ² it is the second largest island in the lake after Torsö. It is the northernmost part of the municipality of Lidköping
Lidköping () is a locality and the s ...
in the southern portion of Vänern. Before returning to Norway, Magnus left 300 men on the island for the winter (led by Finn Skofteson and Sigurd Ullstreng).
According to Randi Helene Førsund, the Norwegians in Kållandsö appear to have been characterized by arrogance (perhaps due to their successes under Magnus) and taunted the Swedish king for taking so long to arrive. After newly formed ice connected the island to the mainland, Inge arrived with about 3,000 men. Although he offered several times to allow the Norwegians to return home in peace (with their plunder and possessions), Inge's offers were rejected. The Swedes finally attacked, burning the fort. The Norwegians were spared and allowed to return home, after being beaten with sticks and surrendering all their possessions. Angry at the humiliating defeat, Magnus planned revenge. He entered Sweden the following year, reconquering the same areas. During the hasty campaign Magnus and his men were ambushed by Swedish forces and forced to flee back to their ships, suffering heavy losses. The war continued until 1100 or 1101.
Danish king
Eric Evergood, concerned that the conflict would escalate, began peace talks between the two kings. Relations had been strained between Denmark and Norway after Magnus' 1096 raids into Halland, and Eric feared that the conflict might spill over into his own country. The three Scandinavian kings eventually agreed to negotiate peace in the border area near Göta älv. After a constructive meeting, they agreed to preserve ancestral borders; by marrying Inge's daughter
Margaret
Margaret is a female first name, derived via French () and Latin () from grc, μαργαρίτης () meaning "pearl". The Greek is borrowed from Persian.
Margaret has been an English name since the 11th century, and remained popular through ...
(who acquired the byname ''Fredkulla'': "Colleen-of-Peace"), Magnus acquired the lands he claimed on behalf of his ancestors. Since the marriage was childless, Dalsland never became established as a Norwegian province
and was returned to Sweden after his death.
Second Irish Sea campaign and death
Magnus again set his course for Ireland in 1101 or 1102, this time probably with a greater army than he had in his previous campaign. One of his biggest challenges was the number of petty kings and alliances on the island. Irish sources maintain that Magnus came to "take Ireland", "invade Ireland" or "besiege Ireland."
[Duffy (1997) p. 111] He received reinforcements from Orkney on his way to Mann, where he set up a base to survey conditions. Tensions ran high between Magnus and the king of
Munster
Munster ( gle, an Mhumhain or ) is one of the provinces of Ireland, in the south of Ireland. In early Ireland, the Kingdom of Munster was one of the kingdoms of Gaelic Ireland ruled by a "king of over-kings" ( ga, rí ruirech). Following t ...
and
High King of Ireland
High King of Ireland ( ga, Ardrí na hÉireann ) was a royal title in Gaelic Ireland held by those who had, or who are claimed to have had, lordship over all of Ireland. The title was held by historical kings and later sometimes assigned an ...
,
Muirchertach Ua Briain
Muircheartach Ua Briain (old spelling: Muirchertach Ua Briain) (also known as Murtaugh O'Brien) (c. 1050 – c. 10 March 1119), son of Toirdelbach Ua Briain and great-grandson of Brian Boru, was King of Munster and later self-declared High Ki ...
(''Mýrjartak''), who was struggling with his rival
Domnall Ua Lochlainn
Domhnall Ua Lochlainn (old spelling: Domnall Ua Lochlainn) (1048 – 10 February 1121), also known as Domhnall Mac Lochlainn (old spelling: Domnall Mac Lochlainn), was king of the Cenél Eogain, over-king of Ailech, and alleged High King of ...
. Magnus may have tested the situation in 1101, when unnamed sailors are said to have raided
Scattery Island
Inis Cathaigh or Scattery Island is an island in the Shannon Estuary, Ireland, off the coast of Kilrush, County Clare. The island is home to a lighthouse, a ruined monastery associated with Saint Senan, an Irish round tower and the remains of ...
(near Muirchertach's base).
[Power (2005) p. 15] After his arrival at Mann, Irish sources describe Magnus as agreeing to "a year's peace" with the Irish (suggesting enmity; such agreements were diplomatic devices, usually negotiated between two sides in war).
The marriage agreement described in other sources was part of the treaty;
Magnus' son, Sigurd, married Muirchertach's daughter
Bjaðmunjo. On their wedding day, Magnus named Sigurd his co-king and put him in charge of the western lands.
[Duffy (1997) p. 112] Muirchertach also recognised Magnus' control over
Dublin
Dublin (; , or ) is the capital and largest city of Ireland. On a bay at the mouth of the River Liffey, it is in the province of Leinster, bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, a part of the Wicklow Mountains range. At the 2016 ...
and
Fingal
Fingal ( ; ) is a county in Ireland. It is located in the province of Leinster and is part of the Eastern and Midland Region. It is one of three successor counties to County Dublin, which was disestablished for administrative purposes in 1994. ...
.
Around the same time Muirchertach married a daughter of
Arnulf of Montgomery, brother of Hugh (who was killed by Magnus in 1098).
[Power (2005) p. 17] The account in ''Morkinskinna'' concerning a "foreign knight" named "Giffarðr", who appeared at the court of Magnus before his Swedish campaign, is suggested by Rosemary Power as evidence that Magnus may have conspired with the Norman
Walter Giffard, Earl of Buckingham (or a family member) in the revolt against
Henry I of England
Henry I (c. 1068 – 1 December 1135), also known as Henry Beauclerc, was King of England from 1100 to his death in 1135. He was the fourth son of William the Conqueror and was educated in Latin and the liberal arts. On William's death in ...
.
According to Orderic Vitalis, Magnus left treasure with a wealthy citizen in
Lincoln which was confiscated by King Henry after Magnus' death. This treasure could have been paid by Norman earls for Magnus' support, and possibly arranged by the Giffarðr who is said to have visited Magnus' court in the sagas. This could have provided Magnus with a lucrative return for his costly western campaigns, which were unpopular in Norway at the time.
Muirchertach was skilled in diplomacy, and negotiation with the dowries of his daughters may have been part of a political game. While he may not have intended to honour his agreements with Magnus (or others), he needed the latter's assistance to crush Domnall. Magnus and Muirchertach went on joint raiding expeditions after the peace agreement, only interrupted by the winter of 1102–03. The sagas claim that Magnus wintered in
Connacht
Connacht ( ; ga, Connachta or ), is one of the provinces of Ireland, in the west of Ireland. Until the ninth century it consisted of several independent major Gaelic kingdoms ( Uí Fiachrach, Uí Briúin, Uí Maine, Conmhaícne, and ...
, but since Connacht is incorrectly claimed to be Muirchertach's kingdom the location was corrected to
Kincora, Munster by modern historians.
[Førsund (2012) p. 125] Rosemary Power considered it more likely that Magnus would have kept his fleet near Dublin.
Magnus was probably allied with Muirchertach during his campaigns against Domnall and the
Cenél nEógain
Cenél is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* Cenél Conaill, the name of the "kindred" or descendants of Conall Gulban, son of Niall Noígiallach defined by oral and recorded history
* Cenél nEógain (in English, Cenel Eogan) i ...
in 1103, but (in contrast to the Norse sources) Irish sources (the ''
Annals of Ulster
The ''Annals of Ulster'' ( ga, Annála Uladh) are annals of medieval Ireland. The entries span the years from 431 AD to 1540 AD. The entries up to 1489 AD were compiled in the late 15th century by the scribe Ruaidhrí Ó Luinín, ...
'' and ''
Annals of the Four Masters
The ''Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland'' ( ga, Annála Ríoghachta Éireann) or the ''Annals of the Four Masters'' (''Annála na gCeithre Máistrí'') are chronicles of medieval Irish history. The entries span from the Deluge, dated as 2,24 ...
'') do not describe their campaigns as successful. On 5 August 1103, Muirchertach unsuccessfully tried to subdue Domnall in the Battle of Mag Coba.
[Duffy (1997) p. 113] Magnus did not take part, but his Dublin subjects fought with Muirchertach.
Since Magnus was closing in on the Irish throne, Muirchertach may have wanted him out of the way.
According to ''Morkinskinna'' and ''Heimskringla'', the two agreed that Muirchertach was to bring Magnus and his men cattle provisions for their return to Norway; as this dragged on past the agreed time, Magnus became suspicious that the Irish planned an attack. He gathered his men on
St. Bartholomew's Day (or the day before, according to ''Ágrip''), 24 August 1103, and ventured into the country. It is possible that Magnus and his men made an incautious landing to raid cattle,
[Power (1986) p. 128] or the Ulaid mistook the Norwegians for cattle-raiding Hebrideans. Alternatively, Muirchertach may have ordered the Ulaid to bring provisions to Magnus, inciting the Ulaid to ambush the Norwegians.
Norse sources describe a large force emerging from hiding places in an ambush. The Norwegian forces were taken by surprise, and were not in battle order. Magnus attempted to assert control over his disordered army, ordering part of his force to seize secure ground and use archery fire to slow the Irish. In the melee Magnus was pierced by a spear through both thighs above the knees but he fought on, attempting to get his men back to the level campsite. An axe-wielding Irishman charged him, striking a lethal blow to his neck. When his men said that he proceeded incautiously in his campaigns, Magnus is reported to have responded "Kings are made for honour, not for long life"; he was the last Norwegian king to fall in battle abroad.
Perhaps betrayed by Muirchertach, Magnus may also have been betrayed by his own men (in particular the contingent of nobleman Torgrim Skinnluve from the Uplands, who fled to the ships during the battle). It is possible that Torgrim and his men may have been directed by powerful men in Norway, who wanted Magnus removed from the Norwegian throne. More Irishmen than Norwegians fell in the battle, according to Snorri Sturluson, and Magnus' reign could have been different if Torgrim and his men had fought as directed. Magnus' son Sigurd returned to Norway without his child bride after his father's defeat, and direct Norwegian control in the region came to an end. Although Norwegian influence remained, no Norwegian king returned for more than 150 years.
Descendants
Magnus married Margaret Fredkulla, daughter of Swedish king Inge Stenkilsson, as part of the peace agreement of 1101. Their marriage did not produce any children. His three sons (who succeeded him as king) were born to different women, and he had two known daughters by unidentified women:
*
Eystein Eystein or Eysteinn is the name of:
* Eystein Erlendsson (d. 1188), Norwegian bishop and saint
* Eystein Halfdansson (fl. c. 730), king of Romerike and Vestfold in what is now Norway
* Eystein Haraldson (died 1157), king of Norway
* Eystein Ivarsso ...
: Born 1089 to a mother "of low birth".
*
Sigurd
Sigurd ( non, Sigurðr ) or Siegfried (Middle High German: ''Sîvrit'') is a legendary hero of Germanic heroic legend, who killed a dragon and was later murdered. It is possible he was inspired by one or more figures from the Frankish Merovin ...
: Born 1090; his mother's name was Tora.
*
Olaf
Olaf or Olav (, , or British ; Old Norse: ''Áleifr'', ''Ólafr'', ''Óleifr'', ''Anleifr'') is a Scandinavian and German given name. It is presumably of Proto-Norse origin, reconstructed as ''*Anu-laibaz'', from ''anu'' "ancestor, grand-father" ...
: Born c. 1099, his mother was Sigrid Saxesdatter from Vik in
Strinda
Strinda is a former municipality in the old Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. The municipality existed from 1838 until its dissolution in 1964. The municipality encompassed the eastern part of what is now the municipality of Trondheim south and ...
,
Trøndelag
Trøndelag (; sma, Trööndelage) is a county in the central part of Norway. It was created in 1687, then named Trondhjem County ( no, Trondhjems Amt); in 1804 the county was split into Nord-Trøndelag and Sør-Trøndelag by the King of Denma ...
.
* Ragnild: Married
Harald Kesja, Danish pretender and son of Danish king Eric Evergood.
*
Tora
Tora or TORA may refer to:
People
* Tora (given name), female given name
* Tora (surname)
* Tora people of Arabia and northern Africa
* Torá language, an extinct language once spoken in Brazil
Places
* Tora, Benin, in Borgou Department
* T ...
: Married Icelandic chieftain
Loftur Sæmundsson.
Years after Magnus' death, other men came forward claiming to be his sons; however, it is impossible to ascertain the veracity of these claims:
*
Harald Gille: Born 1103 in Ireland, his claim was recognised by Magnus' son Sigurd.
*
Sigurd Slembe
Sigurd Magnusson Slembe (or Slembedjakn) (died 12 November 1139) was a Norwegian pretender to the throne.
He was the subject of ''Sigurd Slembe'', the historical drama written by the Norwegian playwright Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1862.
Biograp ...
: His mother was Tora Saxesdatter from Vik; his claim was not recognised (by Harald Gille).
* Magnus Raude: Mentioned only in ''Fagrskinna''.
Aftermath
Burial
Magnus probably died in the vicinity of the
River Quoile. According to the ''Chronicles of the Kings of Mann and the Isles'', Magnus was "buried near the Church of St Patrick, in Down". About two miles (1.2 km) south of the cathedral on
Horse Island is a mound which became known as Magnus' Grave after its identification on an 1859 map attributed to Danish archaeologist
Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae
Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae (14 March 1821 – 15 August 1885) was a Danish archaeologist, historian and politician, who was the second director of the National Museum of Denmark (1865–1874). He played a key role in the foundation of scientific ...
. Snorri Sturluson's description of the marshy and difficult terrain where Magnus and his men were attacked fits the conditions in and around Horse Island, making it a strong candidate for the burial site. According to Finbar McCormick, the people who ambushed Magnus may not have wanted a Christian burial for him and his men, instead burying them near where they had been slain. The Downpatrick runestone monument marking the site was erected in March 2003 to mark the 900th anniversary of his death. The burial site is largely only accessible via the heritage railway in Downpatrick; a
halt overlooking the
barrow and runestone has been built and erected by Philip Campbell, local viking history enthusiast, chairman and founder of the Magnus Viking Association and the Ballydugan Medieval Settlement which is located a short distance from the Runestone on the Drumcullan Road.
Succession
Magnus was succeeded peacefully by his three sons:
Sigurd
Sigurd ( non, Sigurðr ) or Siegfried (Middle High German: ''Sîvrit'') is a legendary hero of Germanic heroic legend, who killed a dragon and was later murdered. It is possible he was inspired by one or more figures from the Frankish Merovin ...
,
Eystein Eystein or Eysteinn is the name of:
* Eystein Erlendsson (d. 1188), Norwegian bishop and saint
* Eystein Halfdansson (fl. c. 730), king of Romerike and Vestfold in what is now Norway
* Eystein Haraldson (died 1157), king of Norway
* Eystein Ivarsso ...
and
Olaf
Olaf or Olav (, , or British ; Old Norse: ''Áleifr'', ''Ólafr'', ''Óleifr'', ''Anleifr'') is a Scandinavian and German given name. It is presumably of Proto-Norse origin, reconstructed as ''*Anu-laibaz'', from ''anu'' "ancestor, grand-father" ...
.
Near the end of Sigurd's reign (he having outlived his brothers) during the late 1120s, the previously unknown
Harald Gille came to Norway from the west claiming to be a son of Magnus Barefoot and legitimate successor to the kingdom. Sigurd recognised Harald as his brother (and successor) after Harald walked uninjured over nine burning ploughshares in a
trial by ordeal
Trial by ordeal was an ancient judicial practice by which the guilt or innocence of the accused was determined by subjecting them to a painful, or at least an unpleasant, usually dangerous experience.
In medieval Europe, like trial by combat, t ...
, and he was proclaimed king after Sigurd's death in 1130 with Sigurd's son
Magnus Sigurdsson.
Since Harald was accompanied by his mother to Norway, Sigurd may have recognised a former lover of his father.
[Power (2005) p. 18]
Relations between Harald and Magnus Sigurdsson soured, and several years later Harald had Magnus mutilated and deposed (hence his byname "the Blind"). Soon afterwards, Harald was murdered by another pretender:
Sigurd Slembe
Sigurd Magnusson Slembe (or Slembedjakn) (died 12 November 1139) was a Norwegian pretender to the throne.
He was the subject of ''Sigurd Slembe'', the historical drama written by the Norwegian playwright Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1862.
Biograp ...
, who also claimed to be a son of Magnus Barefoot and had been outlawed by Harald.
After Harald's death Slembe allied himself with Magnus the Blind, but they were defeated by chieftains loyal to Harald Gille's family in the
Battle of Holmengrå
The Battle of Holmengrå ( Norwegian: ''Slaget ved Holmengrå'') was a naval battle fought on 12 November 1139 near the island Holmengrå south of Hvaler, between the forces of the child kings Sigurd Haraldsson and Inge Haraldsson on the one sid ...
. Magnus was killed during the battle; Sigurd was captured, tortured and executed. This began what would become the century-long
Norwegian civil-war era.
Legacy
The earliest-known native Irishman to have been named Magnus may have been the son of Muirchertach's greatest rival, Domnall Ua Lochlainn;
Magnus became a name among the Ulaid during the 12th century.
According to ''Morkinskinna'', tribute from Ireland was received in Norway as late as about twelve years after Magnus' death.
Magnus became the subject of at least two Gaelic ballads as the character Manus Mór. In the best-known version, he returns to Norway after an expedition to the west; he is killed in the second version. The different versions are probably derived from Magnus' two expeditions. There are also traditions concerning Magnus in Scotland in legends, poems and local history.
[Førsund (2012) p. 11]
In modern times, a "Magnus Barelegs festival" has been held near Downpatrick at Delamont Country park bi-annually. Traditionally held on the last weekend of August every second year (27th&28 August 2022) it is organised, funded and carried out by the Magnus Viking Association. There is a beer named after his sword, Legbiter.
In Norway, according to Førsund, Magnus has "been reduced to a sigh" in history books; little remains to commemorate him.
When King Magnus was killed in an ambush by the Men of
Ulster
Ulster (; ga, Ulaidh or ''Cúige Uladh'' ; sco, label= Ulster Scots, Ulstèr or ''Ulster'') is one of the four traditional Irish provinces. It is made up of nine counties: six of these constitute Northern Ireland (a part of the United Kin ...
, his sword was retrieved and sent home.
References
Bibliography
Primary sources
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Sturluson, Snorri (c. 1230).
Magnus Barefoot's saga' (in ''Heimskringla''). English translation: Samuel Laing (London, 1844).
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Theodoric the Monk
Theodoric the Monk ( la, Theodoricus monachus; also ''Tjodrik munk''; in Old Norse his name was most likely ''Þórir'') was a 12th-century Norwegian Benedictine monk, perhaps at the Nidarholm Abbey. He may be identical with either Bishop Tore o ...
(c. 1180).
The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings'. English translation: David and Ian McDougall (London, 1998).
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Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum' (c. 1180s). English translation: M. J. Driscoll (London, 2008).
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' (c. 1262). English translation: Rev. Goss (Douglas, 1874).
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Fagrskinna' (c. 1220s), in Old Norse. Edited by Finnur Jonsson (Copenhagen, 1902).
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Morkinskinna' (c. 1220s), in Old Norse. Edited by Finnur Jonsson (Copenhagen, 1932).
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' (c. 1230). English translation: George W. Dasent (London, 1894).
Books
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Journals
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Further reading
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Magnus 3
1073 births
1103 deaths
11th-century rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles
12th-century rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles
11th-century Norwegian monarchs
12th-century Norwegian monarchs
Monarchs of the Isle of Man
Monarchs of Dublin
House of Hardrada
Monarchs killed in action