Magnolia Mariusjacobsia

''Magnolia'' is a large genus of about 210 to 340The number of species in the genus ''Magnolia'' depends on the taxonomic view that one takes up. Recent molecular and morphological research shows that former genera ''Talauma'', ''Dugandiodendron'', ''Manglietia'', ''Michelia'', ''Elmerrillia'', ''Kmeria'', ''Parakmeria'', ''Pachylarnax'' (and a small number of monospecific genera) all belong within the same genus, ''Magnolia'' s.l. (s.l. = ''sensu lato'': 'in a broad sense', as opposed to s.s. = ''sensu stricto'': 'in a narrow sense'). The genus ''Magnolia'' s.s. contains about 120 species. See the section Nomenclature and classification in this article. flowering plant species in the subfamily Magnolioideae of the family Magnoliaceae. It is named after French botanist Pierre Magnol.

''Magnolia'' is an ancient genus. Appearing before bees evolved, the flowers are theorized to have evolved to encourage pollination by beetles.
To avoid damage from pollinating beetles, the carpels of ''Magnolia'' flowers are extremely tough. Fossilized specimens of ''Magnolia acuminata, M. acuminata'' have been found dating to 20 million years ago, and fossils of plants identifiably belonging to the Magnoliaceae date to 95 million years ago. Another aspect of ''Magnolia'' considered to represent an ancestral state is that the flower bud is enclosed in a bract rather than in sepals; the perianth parts are undifferentiated and called tepals rather than distinct sepals and petals. ''Magnolia'' shares the tepal characteristic with several other flowering plants near the Basal (phylogenetics), base of the flowering plant lineage such as ''Amborella'' and ''Nymphaea'' (as well as with many more recently derived plants such as ''Lilium'').

The natural range of ''Magnolia'' species is a disjunct distribution, with a main center in east and southeast Asia and a secondary center in eastern North America, Central America, the West Indies, and some species in South America.

Description

Magnolias are spreading, evergreen or deciduous trees or shrubs, characterised by large fragrant flowers which may be bowl-shaped or star-shaped, in shades of white, pink, purple, green or yellow. In deciduous species the blooms often appear before the leaves, in spring. Cone-like fruits are often produced in autumn.

As with all Magnoliaceae, the perianth is undifferentiated, with 9–15 tepals in three or more Whorl (botany), whorls. The flowers are bisexual with numerous Adnation, adnate carpels and stamens are arranged in a spiral fashion on the elongated Receptacle (botany), receptacle. The fruit dehisces along the dorsal sutures of the carpels. The pollen is Pollen#Structure, monocolpate, and the embryo development is of the Polygonum type.

Taxonomists, including James E. Dandy in 1927, have long had an interest in observing fruits of Magnoliaceae and have often used the differences, or perceived differences, in fruit characters to justify systems for classification.

Taxonomy

History

Early

The name ''Magnolia'' first appeared in 1703 in the ''Genera''Plumier, C. (1703) ''Nova plantarum Americanarum genera''. Paris. [New genera of American plants]. of Charles Plumier (1646–1704), for a flowering tree from the island of Martinique (''talauma''). It was named after the French botanist Pierre Magnol. English botanist William Sherard, who studied botany in Paris under Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, a pupil of Magnol, was most probably the first after Plumier to adopt the genus name ''Magnolia''. He was at least responsible for the Taxonomy (biology), taxonomic part of Johann Jacob Dillenius's ''Hortus Elthamensis'' and of Mark Catesby's ''Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands''. These were the first works after Plumier's ''Genera'' that used the name ''Magnolia'', this time for some species of flowering plant, flowering trees from temperate North America. The species that Plumier originally named ''Magnolia'' was later described as ''Annona dodecapetala'' by Lamarck, and has since been named ''Magnolia plumieri'' and ''Talauma plumieri'' (and still a number of other names) but is now known as ''Magnolia dodecapetala''.Under the rule of priority, the first name that is validly published in Linnaeus' ''Species Plantarum'' (1 May 1753) or any other work of any other botanist after that, takes precedence over later names. Plumier's name was not a binomen and moreover published before ''Species Plantarum'', so it has no status. The first binomen published after 1753 was Lamarck's ''Annona dodecapetala'' (1786). ''Magnolia plumieri'' (1788) was published on a later date by Schwartz, and is treated as a later synonym, as are ''Magnolia fatiscens'' (1817; Richard), ''Talauma caerulea'' (Jaume St-Hilaire 1805) and ''Magnolia linguifolia'' (1822).

Carl Linnaeus, who was familiar with Plumier's ''Genera'', adopted the genus name ''Magnolia'' in 1735 in his first edition of ''Systema Naturae'', without a description, but with a reference to Plumier's work. In 1753, he took up Plumier's ''Magnolia'' in the first edition of ''Species Plantarum''. There he described a monotypic genus, with the sole species being ''Magnolia virginiana''. Since Linnaeus never saw a herbarium specimen (if there ever was one) of Plumier's ''Magnolia'' and had only his description and a rather poor picture at hand, he must have taken it for the same plant which was described by Catesby in his 1730 ''Natural History of Carolina''. He placed it in the synonym (taxonomy), synonymy of ''Magnolia virginiana'' var. ''fœtida'', the taxon now known as ''Magnolia grandiflora''. Under ''Magnolia virginiana'' Linnaeus described five varieties (''glauca'', ''fœtida'', ''grisea'', ''tripetala'', and ''acuminata''). In the tenth edition of ''Systema Naturae'' (1759), he merged ''grisea'' with ''glauca'', and raised the four remaining varieties to species status.''Magnolia glauca'' has the same type specimen as ''Magnolia virginiana'' and as the latter is the first valid name, the species is now called ''Magnolia virginiana'' (sweetbay magnolia). Var. ''fœtida'' was renamed ''Magnolia grandiflora'', which is legitimate as the epithet ''fœtida'' only has priority in its rank of variety. ''Magnolia grandiflora'' is the southern magnolia. ''Magnolia tripetala'' (umbrella magnolia) and ''Magnolia acuminata'' (cucumber tree) are still recognized as species.

By the end of the 18th century, botanists and plant hunters exploring Asia began to name and describe the ''Magnolia'' species from China and Japan. The first Asiatic species to be described by western botanists were ''Magnolia denudata'', ''Magnolia liliiflora'',Under these names the species were described by Louis Auguste Joseph Desrousseaux, Desrousseaux in Lamarck's ''Encyclopédie Méthodique Botanique'', tome troisieme (1792): 675. In the beginning of the 20th century, descriptions which seemed to represent the same species, were found in a work of the French naturalist Pierre Joseph Buchoz, P.J. Buc'hoz, ''Plantes nouvellement découvertes'' (1779), under the names ''Lassonia heptapeta'' and ''Lassonia quinquepeta''. In 1934, the English botanist J.E. Dandy argued that these names had priority over the names by which both species had been known for over a century and hence from then on ''Magnolia denudata'' had to be named ''Magnolia heptapeta'', ''Magnolia liliiflora'' should be changed into ''Magnolia quinquepeta''. After a lengthy debate, specialist taxonomists decided that the Buc'hoz's names were based on chimaeras (pictures constructed of elements of different species), and as Buc'hoz did not cite or preserve herbarium specimens, his names were ruled not to be acceptable. ''Magnolia coco'' and ''Michelia figo, Magnolia figo''.These species were published as ''Liriodendron coco'' and ''Liriodendron figo'' by J. de Loureiro in ''Flora Cochinchinensis'' (1790) and later (1817) transferred to ''Magnolia'' by A. P. de Candolle. ''Magnolia figo'' was soon after transferred to the genus ''Michelia''. Soon after that, in 1794, Carl Peter Thunberg collected and described ''Magnolia obovata'' from Japan and at roughly the same time ''Magnolia kobus'' was also first collected.

Recent

With the number of species increasing, the genus was divided into the two subgenera ''Magnolia'' and ''Yulania''. ''Magnolia'' contains the American evergreen species ''M. grandiflora'', which is of horticulture, horticultural importance, especially in the southeastern United States, and ''M. virginiana'', the type species. ''Yulania'' contains several deciduous Asiatic species, such as ''M. denudata'' and ''M. kobus'', which have become horticulturally important in their own right and as parents in hybrids. Classified in ''Yulania'', is also the American deciduous ''M. acuminata'' (cucumber tree), which has recently attained greater status as the parent responsible for the yellow flower color in many new hybrids.

Relations in the family Magnoliaceae have been puzzling taxonomists for a long time. Because the family is quite old and has survived many geological events (such as ice ages, mountain formation, and continental drift), its distribution has become scattered. Some species or groups of species have been isolated for a long time, while others could stay in close contact. To create divisions in the family (or even within the genus ''Magnolia''), solely based upon morphological characters, has proven to be a nearly impossible task.In 1927 J.E. Dandy accepted 10 genera in ''The genera of Magnoliaceae'', ''Kew Bulletin 1927'': 257–264. In 1984 Law Yuh-Wu proposed 15 in ''A preliminary study on the taxonomy of the family Magnoliaceae'', ''Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica'' 22: 89–109; in 2004 even 16, in ''Magnolias of China''. This is not just about grouping some genera together where others do not; authors often choose different boundaries.

By the end of the 20th century, DNA sequencing had become available as a method of large-scale research on Phylogenetics, phylogenetic relationships. Several studies, including studies on many species in the family Magnoliaceae, were carried out to investigate relationships. What these studies all revealed was that genus ''Michelia'' and ''Magnolia'' subgenus ''Yulania'' were far more closely allied to each other than either one of them was to ''Magnolia'' subgenus ''Magnolia''. These phylogenetic studies were supported by morphological data.

As nomenclature is supposed to reflect relationships, the situation with the species names in ''Michelia'' and ''Magnolia'' subgenus ''Yulania'' was undesirable. Taxonomically, three choices are available:

# to join ''Michelia'' and ''Yulania'' species in a common genus, not being ''Magnolia'' (for which the name ''Michelia'' has priority);
# to raise subgenus ''Yulania'' to generic rank, leaving ''Michelia'' names and subgenus ''Magnolia'' names untouched, or;
# to join ''Michelia'' with genus ''Magnolia'' into genus ''Magnolia'' sensu (taxonomy), s.l. (a big genus).

''Magnolia'' subgenus ''Magnolia'' cannot be renamed because it contains ''M. virginiana'', the type species of the genus and of the family.

Not many ''Michelia'' species have so far become horticulturally or economically important, apart for their wood. Both subgenus ''Magnolia'' and subgenus ''Yulania'' include species of major horticultural importance, and a change of name would be very undesirable for many people, especially in the horticultural branch. In Europe, ''Magnolia'' even is more or less a synonym for ''Yulania'', since most of the cultivated species on this continent have ''Magnolia (Yulania) denudata'' as one of their parents. Most taxonomists who acknowledge close relations between ''Yulania'' and ''Michelia'' therefore support the third option and join ''Michelia'' with ''Magnolia''.

The same goes, ''mutatis mutandis'', for the (former) genera ''Talauma'' and ''Dugandiodendron'', which are then placed in subgenus ''Magnolia'', and genus ''Manglietia'', which could be joined with subgenus ''Magnolia'' or may even earn the status of an extra subgenus. ''Elmerrillia'' seems to be closely related to ''Michelia'' and ''Yulania'', in which case it will most likely be treated in the same way as ''Michelia'' is now. The precise nomenclatural status of small or monospecific genera like ''Kmeria'', ''Parakmeria'', ''Pachylarnax'', ''Manglietiastrum'', ''Aromadendron'', ''Woonyoungia'', ''Alcimandra'', ''Paramichelia'' and ''Tsoongiodendron'' remains uncertain. Taxonomists who merge ''Michelia'' into ''Magnolia'' tend to merge these small genera into ''Magnolia'' s.l. as well. Botanists do not yet agree on whether to recognize a big ''Magnolia'' or the different small genera. For example, ''Flora of China'' offers two choices: a large genus ''Magnolia'' which includes about 300 species, everything in the Magnoliaceae except ''Liriodendron'' (tulip tree), or 16 different genera, some of them recently split out or re-recognized, each of which contains up to 50 species.4. Magnoliaceae
''Flora of China'' The western co-author favors the big genus ''Magnolia'', whereas the Chinese recognize the different small genera.

Fossil record

Fossils assignable to ''Magnolia'' extend into the Paleogene, such as ''Magnolia nanningensis,'' named for mummified wood from the Oligocene of Guangxi, China, which has a close affinity to members of the modern secton ''Michelia''.

Subdivision

In 2012, the Magnolia Society published on its website a classification of the genus produced by Richard B. Figlar, based on a 2004 classification by Figlar and Hans Peter Nooteboom. Species of ''Magnolia'' were listed under three subgenus, subgenera, 12 section (biology), sections, and 13 subsections. Subsequent Molecular phylogenetics, molecular phylogenetic studies have led to some revisions of this system; for example, the subgenus ''Magnolia'' was found not to be Monophyly, monophyletic. A revised classification in 2020, based on a phylogenetic analysis of complete chloroplast genomes, abandoned subgenera and subsections, dividing ''Magnolia'' into 15 sections. The relationships among these sections are shown in the following cladogram, as is the paraphyletic status of subgenus ''Magnolia''.

The table below compares the 2012 and 2020 classifications. (The exact Circumscription (taxonomy), circumscriptions of the corresponding taxa may not be the same.)

Species

The species lists below are divided according to the Magnolia Society's 2012 classification.

Subgenus ''Magnolia''

Anthers open by splitting at the front facing the centre of the flower, deciduous or evergreen, flowers produced after the leaf, leaves.

=Section ''Magnolia''

=
* ''Magnolia grandiflora'' L. - (SE US)
* ''Magnolia guatemalensis'' Donn. Sm. - (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador)
** ''Magnolia guatemalensis'' subsp. ''guatemalensis'' (Guatemala)
** ''Magnolia guatemalensis'' subsp. ''hondurensis'' (Molina) Vazquez (Honduras, El Salvador)
* ''Magnolia guerrerensis'' J.Jiménez Ram., K.Vega & Cruz Durán (Mexico)
* ''Magnolia iltisiana'' Vazquez (W Mexico)
* ''Magnolia krusei'' J.Jiménez Ram. & Cruz Durán (Mexico)
* ''Magnolia pacifica'' Vazquez (W Mexico)
** ''Magnolia pacifica'' subsp. ''pacifica'' (W Mexico)
** ''Magnolia pacifica'' subsp. ''pugana'' Iltis & Vazquez (W Mexico)
* ''Magnolia panamensis'' Vazquez & Iltis (Panama)
* ''Magnolia poasana'' (Pittier) Dandy (Costa Rica, Panama)
*''Magnolia poqomchi''
* ''Magnolia schiedeana'' Schltdl. (E Mexico)
* ''Magnolia sharpii'' Meranda (Chiapas (Mexico))
* ''Magnolia sororum'' Seibert (Costa Rica, Panama)
** ''Magnolia sororum'' subsp. ''lutea'' Vazquez. (Costa Rica, Panama)
** ''Magnolia sororum'' subsp. ''sororum'' (Panama)
* ''Magnolia tamaulipana'' Vazquez - Mexican evergreen magnolia (NE Mexico)
* ''Magnolia tarahumara'' (Vazquez) A.Vázquez (W Mexico)
* ''Magnolia vazquezii'' Cruz Durán & K.Vega (Mexico)
* ''Magnolia virginiana'' L. (SE US)
* ''Magnolia yoroconte'' Dandy (Guatemala, Honduras, Belize)

=Section ''Gwillimia''

=

Subsection ''Gwillimia''

* ''Magnolia albosericea'' Chun & Tsoong. (Hainan (China))
* ''Magnolia bawangensis'' Law, R.Z.Zhou & D.M.Liu (Hainan (China))
* ''Magnolia championii'' Benth (S & SE China)
* ''Magnolia clemensiorum'' Dandy (Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia coco'' (Lour.) DC. (SE China)
* ''Magnolia delavayi'' Franchet (Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia fistulosa'' (Finet & Gagnep.) Dandy (SE Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia henryi'' Dunn (Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia nana'' Dandy (Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia odoratissima'' Law et Zhou (S China)
* ''Magnolia pterocarpa'' Roxb. (Nepal, Burma)
* ''Magnolia xiana'' Noot. (China)

Subsection ''Blumiana''

* ''Magnolia angatensis'' Blanco (Philippines)
* ''Magnolia betongensis'' (Craib) H.Keng (Borneo)
* ''Magnolia gigantifolia'' (Miq.) Noot. (Borneo, Sumatra)
* ''Magnolia hodgsonii'' (Hook.f. & Thom.) H.Keng (Nepal, Burma)
* ''Magnolia lasia'' Noot. (Borneo)
* ''Magnolia liliifera'' (L.) Baillon (SE Asia, Borneo, Philippines, Singapore, Sumatra)
** ''Magnolia liliifera'' var. ''angatensis'' (Blanco) Noot. (Philippines)
** ''Magnolia liliifera'' var. ''beccarii'' (Henry Nicholas Ridley, Ridley) Noot. (Borneo)
** ''Magnolia liliifera'' var. ''liliifera'' (SE Asia)
** ''Magnolia liliifera'' var. ''obovata'' (Korth.) Govaerts (Borneo)
** ''Magnolia liliifera'' var. ''singapurensis'' (Ridley) Noot. (Singapore, Sumatra)
* ''Magnolia mariusjacobsia'' Noot. (Borneo)
* ''Magnolia persuaveolens'' Dandy (Borneo)
** ''Magnolia persuaveolens'' subsp. ''persuaveolens'' (Borneo)
** ''Magnolia persuaveolens'' subsp. ''rigida'' Noot. (Borneo)
* ''Magnolia rabaniana'' Hook.f. & Thomson D.C.S.Raju & M.P.Nayer (India)
* ''Magnolia sarawakensis'' (Agostini) Noot. (Borneo)
* ''Magnolia singapurensis'' (Ridl.) H.Keng (Singapore, Sumatra)
* ''Magnolia villosa'' (Miq.) H.Keng (Sumatra, Borneo)

=Section ''Talauma''

=

Subsection ''Talauma''

* ''Magnolia allenii'' Standl. (Panama)
* ''Magnolia amazonica'' (Ducke) Govaerts (Brazil, Peru)
* ''Magnolia arcabucoana'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia bankardiorum'' M.O.Dillon & Sánchez Vega (Peru)
* ''Magnolia boliviana'' (M.Nee) Govaerts (Bolivia)
* ''Magnolia caricifragrans'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia cespedesii'' (Triana & Planch) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia chocoensis'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia coronata'' M.Serna, C.Velásquez & Cogollo (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia dixonii'' (Little) Govaerts (Ecuador)
* ''Magnolia dodecapetala'' (Lam.) Govaerts (Lesser Antilles)
* ''Magnolia espinalii'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia georgii'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia gilbertoi'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia gloriensis'' (Pittier) Govaerts (Central America)
* ''Magnolia henaoi'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia hernandezii'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia irwiniana'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Brazil)
* ''Magnolia jardinensis'' M.Serna, C.Velásquez & Cogollo (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia katiorum'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia lacandonica'' Vazquez-Garcia, Perez-Farrera, Martinez-Camilo, Muniz-Castro & Martinez-Melendez (Mexico)
* ''Magnolia manguillo'' Marcelo-Peña & F. Arroyo (Peru)
* ''Magnolia mexicana'' DC. (Mexico)
* ''Magnolia minor'' (Urb.) Govaerts (Cuba)
* ''Magnolia morii'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Panama)
* ''Magnolia narinensis'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia neillii'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Ecuador)
* ''Magnolia ovata'' (A.St.-Hil.) Spreng. (Brazil)
* ''Magnolia polyhypsophylla'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia quetzal'' Vazquez-Garcia, Veliz-Perez, Triboullier-Navas & Muniz-Castro (Guatemala)
* ''Magnolia rimachii'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Peru, Ecuador)
* ''Magnolia sambuensis'' (Pittier) Govaerts (Panama, Colombia)
* ''Magnolia santanderiana'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia sellowiana'' (A.St.-Hil.) Govaerts (Brazil)
* ''Magnolia silvioi'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia venezuelensis'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Venezuela)
* ''Magnolia virolinensis'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia wolfii'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)

Subsection ''Dugandiodendron''

* ''Magnolia argyrothricha'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia calimaensis'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia calophylla'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia cararensis'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia chimantensis'' Steyermark & Maguire – “Chimanta magnolia” (Venezuela)
* ''Magnolia colombiana'' (Little) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia guatapensis'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia jaenensis'' Marcelo-Peña (Peru)
* ''Magnolia lenticellata'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia magnifolia'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia mahechae'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia ptaritepuiana'' Steyermark – “''ptari-tepui'' magnolia” (Venezuela)
* ''Magnolia striatifolia'' Little (Colombia, Ecuador)
* ''Magnolia urraoense'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)
* ''Magnolia yarumalense'' (Lozano) Govaerts (Colombia)

Subsection ''Cubenses''

* ''Magnolia cristalensis'' Bisse (Cuba)
* ''Magnolia cubensis'' Urb. (Cuba)
* ''Magnolia domingensis'' Urb. (Haiti, Dominican Rep.)
* ''Magnolia ekmannii'' Urb. (Haiti)
* ''Magnolia emarginata'' Urb. & Ekman (Haiti)
* ''Magnolia hamorii'' Howard (Dominican Rep.)
* ''Magnolia pallescens'' Urb. & Ekman (Dom. Rep.)
* ''Magnolia portoricensis'' Bello (Puerto Rico)
* ''Magnolia splendens'' Urban (Puerto Rico)

=Section ''Manglietia''

=
* ''Magnolia aromatica'' (Dandy) V.S.Kumar (S China)
* ''Magnolia blaoensis'' (Gagnep.) Dandy (Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia blumei'' Prantl (Sumatra, Java)
** ''Magnolia blumei'' var. ''blumei'' (Sumatra, Java)
** ''Magnolia blumei'' var. ''sumatrana'' (Miq.) Figlar & Noot. (W Sumatra)
* ''Magnolia calophylloides'' Figlar & Noot. (W Sumatra)
* ''Magnolia caveana'' (Hook.f. & Thoms.) D.C.Raju & M.P.Nayer (Assam, N Burma)
* ''Magnolia changhuntana'' Noot. (Guangdong (China))
* ''Magnolia chevalieri'' (Dandy) V.S.Kumar (Vietnam, Laos)
* ''Magnolia conifera'' (Dandy) V.S.Kumar (SE China, Vietnam)
** ''Magnolia conifera'' var. ''chingii'' (Dandy) V.S.Kumar (SE China)
** ''Magnolia conifera'' var. ''conifera'' (SE China, Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia crassipes'' (Y.W.Law) V.S.Kumar (Guangdong (China))
* ''Magnolia dandyi'' (Gapnep.) Dandy (S China, Vietnam, Laos)
* ''Magnolia decidua'' (Q.Y.Zheng) V.S.Kumar (Jiangxi (China))
* ''Magnolia duclouxii'' Finet & Gagnep. (Vietnam, SW China)
* ''Magnolia figlarii'' V.S.Kumar (Sichuan (China))
* ''Magnolia fordiana'' (Oliv.) Hu (Vietnam, S China)
** ''Magnolia fordiana'' var. ''calcarea'' (X.H.Song) Chen & Noot. (Guizhou (China))
** ''Magnolia fordiana'' var. ''fordiana'' (Vietnam, S China)
** ''Magnolia fordiana'' var. ''forrestii'' (W.W.Sm. Ex Dandy) Chen & Noot. (SW China)
** ''Magnolia fordiana'' var. ''kwangtungensis'' (Merr.) Chen & Noot. (SE China)
* ''Magnolia garrettii'' (Craib) V.S.Kumar (SW China, Vietnam, Thailand)
* ''Magnolia grandis'' (Hu & W.C.Cheng) V.S.Kumar (Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia hongheensis'' (Y.M.Shui & W.H.Chen) V.S.Kumar (Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia hookeri'' Cubitt & W.W.Sm. (SW China, N Burma, Thailand)
* ''Magnolia insignis'' (Wall.) Blume (S China, Nepal, Burma)
* ''Magnolia kwangtungensis'' Merr. (SE China)
* ''Magnolia lanuginosoides'' Figlar & Noot. (Sumatra)
* ''Magnolia longipedunculata'' (Q.W.Zeng & Law) V.S.Kumar (Guangdong (China))
* ''Magnolia lucida'' (B.L. Chen & S.C. Yang) V.S. Kumar (SW China)
* ''Magnolia obovalifolia'' (C.Y.Yu & Law) V.S.Kumar (Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia ovoidea'' (H.T.Chang & B.L.Chen) V.S.Kumar (Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia patungensis'' (Hu) Noot. (China)
* ''Magnolia rufibarbata'' (Dandy) V.S. Kumar (Yunnan (China), Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia sabahensis'' (Dandy ex Noot.) Figlar & Noot. (Borneo)
* ''Magnolia sapaensis'' (N.H.Xia & Q.N.Vu) Grimshaw & Macer (Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia utilis'' (Dandy) V.S.Kumar (N Burma, Thailand)
* ''Magnolia ventii'' (N.V.Tiep) V.S.Kumar (Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia xinganensis'' Noot. (Guangxi (China))
* ''Magnolia yuyuanensis'' (Y.W.Law) V.S.Kumar (E China)
* ''Magnolia zhengyiana'' (N.H.Xia) Noot. (Yunnan (China))

=Section ''Kmeria''

=
* ''Magnolia duperreana'' Pierre (Vietnam, Cambodia)
* ''Magnolia kwangsiensis'' Figlar & Noot. (Yunnan, Guangxi (China))
* ''Magnolia thailandica'' Noot. & Chalermglin (Thailand)

=Section ''Rhytidospermum''

=

Subsection ''Rhytidospermum''

* ''Magnolia obovata'' Thunb. (Japan)
* ''Magnolia officinalis'' Rehd. & Wilson (W China)
** ''Magnolia officinalis'' subsp. ''biloba'' Cheng & Law (E China)
** ''Magnolia officinalis'' subsp. ''officinalis'' (E China)
* ''Magnolia rostrata'' W.W.Smith (SW China)
* ''Magnolia tripetala'' (L.) L. (SE US)

Subsection ''Oyama''

* ''Magnolia globosa'' Hook. f. & Thoms. (Nepal, Burma)
* ''Magnolia sieboldii'' K. Koch (Korea, E China, Japan)
** ''Magnolia sieboldii'' subsp. ''japonica'' K.Ueda (Japan, central China)
** ''Magnolia sieboldii'' subsp. ''sieboldii'' (Japan)
** ''Magnolia sieboldii'' subsp. ''sinensis'' (Rehd. & Wilson) Spongberg (central China)
* ''Magnolia wilsonii'' (Finet. & Gagnep.) Rehd. - Wilson's magnolia (SW China)

= Section ''Auriculata''

=
* ''Magnolia fraseri'' Walt. - Fraser magnolia or ear-leaved magnolia (SE US)
** ''Magnolia fraseri'' var. ''fraseri'' - Fraser magnolia or ear-leaved magnolia (SE US)
** ''Magnolia fraseri'' var. ''pyramidata'' (Bartram) Pampanini - pyramid magnolia (SE US)Often treated as a distinct species, ''Magnolia pyramidata.''

=Section ''Macrophylla''

=
* ''Magnolia macrophylla'' Michx. (SE US, E Mexico)
** ''Magnolia macrophylla'' var. ''ashei'' (Weatherby) D. Johnson (SE US)Often treated as a distinct species, ''Magnolia ashei.''
** Magnolia macrophylla var. dealbata, ''Magnolia macrophylla'' var. ''dealbata'' (Zuccarini) D. Johnson (E Mexico)Often treated as a distinct species, ''Magnolia dealbata.''
** ''Magnolia macrophylla'' var. ''macrophylla'' (SE US)

Subgenus ''Yulania''

Anthers open by splitting at the sides, deciduous, flowers mostly produced before leaves (except ''M. acuminata'')

=Section ''Yulania''

=

Subsection ''Yulania''

* ''Magnolia amoena'' W.C. Cheng (E China)
* ''Magnolia biondii'' Pampan (E China)
* ''Magnolia campbellii'' Hook. f. & Thomson (W China, Himalayas, India, Nepal, Assam)
** ''Magnolia campbellii'' var. ''alba'' Treseder (Himalayas)
** ''Magnolia campbellii'' var. ''campbellii''. (Himalayas)
** ''Magnolia campbellii'' var. ''mollicomata'' (W.W. Smith) F. Kingdon-Ward (W China, Himalayas)
* ''Magnolia cylindrica'' Wilson (E China)
* ''Magnolia dawsoniana'' Rehd. & Wilson (Sichuan (China))
* ''Magnolia denudata'' Desr. (E China)
* ''Magnolia kobus'' DC. (Japan, Korea) – mokryeon, kobus magnolia, or kobushi magnolia
* ''Magnolia liliiflora'' Desr. (central China)
* ''Magnolia × loebneri'' Paul Kache (Japan)
* ''Magnolia salicifolia'' (Sieb. & Zucc.) Maxim. (Japan)
* ''Magnolia sargentiana'' Rehd. & Wilson (W China)
** ''Magnolia sargentiana'' var. ''robusta'' Rehd. & Wilson (Sichuan (China))
** ''Magnolia sargentiana'' var. ''sargentiana'' (W China)
* ''Magnolia × soulangeana'' Thiéb.-Bern. (hybrid origin)
* ''Magnolia sprengeri'' Pampan (Sichuan (China))
** ''Magnolia sprengeri'' var. ''elongata'' (Rehd. & Wilson) Johnstone (Sichuan (China))
** ''Magnolia sprengeri'' var. ''sprengeri'' (Sichuan (China))
* ''Magnolia stellata'' (Sieb. & Zucc.) Maxim. (Japan)
* ''Magnolia zenii'' Cheng (E China)

Subsection ''Tulipastrum''

* ''Magnolia acuminata'' (L.) L. (E North America)
** ''Magnolia acuminata'' var. ''acuminata'' (E North America)
** ''Magnolia acuminata'' var. ''subcordata'' (Spach) Dandy (SE US)

=Section ''Michelia''

=

Subsection ''Michelia''

* Magnolia × alba, ''Magnolia'' × ''alba'' (DC.) Figlar & Noot. (hybrid origin)
* ''Magnolia angustioblonga'' (Law & Wu) Figlar (SW China)
* ''Magnolia baillonii'' Pierre (SW China, Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia balansae'' A.DC. (S China, Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia banghamii'' (Noot.) Figlar & Noot. (Malaysia, Sumatra)
* ''Magnolia braianensis'' (Gagnep.) Figlar (Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia cavaleriei'' (Finet & Gagnep.) Figlar (S China)
* ''Magnolia champaca'' (L.) Baillon ex Pierre (S India, Lesser Sunda isl., Java, Malay penn.)
** ''Magnolia champaca'' var. ''champaca'' (S India, Lesser Sunda isl.)
** ''Magnolia champaca'' var. ''pubinervia'' (Blume) Figlar & Noot. (Java, Malay penn.)
* ''Magnolia chapensis'' (Dandy) Sima (S China, N Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia citrata'' Noot. & Chalermglin (NE Thailand)
* ''Magnolia compressa'' Maxim. (Japan, SW China)
* ''Magnolia coriacea'' (H.T. Chang & B.L. Chen) Figlar (SE Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia doltsopa'' (Buch.-Ham. Ex DC.) Figlar (SW China, Himalayas)
* ''Magnolia elegantifolia'' Noot. (Zhejiang (China))
* ''Magnolia ernestii'' Figlar. (Sichuan (China))
** ''Magnolia ernestii'' subsp. ''ernestii'' (Sichuan (China))
** ''Magnolia ernestii'' subsp. ''szechuanica'' (Dandy) Sima & Figlar (Sichuan (China))
* ''Magnolia figo'' (Lour.) DC. (SE China)
** ''Magnolia figo'' var. ''crassipes'' (Law) Figlar & Noot. (SE China)
** ''Magnolia figo'' var. ''figo'' . (SE China)
** ''Magnolia figo'' var. ''skinneriana'' ined. (SE China)
* ''Magnolia flaviflora'' (Law & Wu) Figlar (Vietnam, SW China)
* ''Magnolia floribunda'' (Finet & Gagnep.) Figlar. (S China, Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia foveolata'' (Merr. Ex Dandy) Figlar (S China, Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia fujianensis'' (Q.F.Zheng) Figlar (SE China)
* ''Magnolia fulva'' (H.T. Chang & B.L. Chen) Figlar (Yunnan (China), Vietnam?)
** ''Magnolia fulva'' var. ''calcicola'' Sima & Yu (Yunnan (China))
** ''Magnolia fulva'' var. ''fulva'' . (Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia gioi'' (A.Chevalier) Noot. (S China, Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia guangdongensis'' (Y.H.Yan, Q.W.Zeng & F.W.Xing) Noot. (Guandong (China))
* ''Magnolia guangxiensis'' (Law & R.Z.Zhou) Sima (Guangxi (China))
* ''Magnolia hypolampra'' (Dandy) Figlar (S China, Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia iteophylla'' (C.Y.Wu ex Y.W.Law & Y.F.Wu) Noot. (Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia kingii'' (Dandy) Figlar (Bangladesh, Assam)
* ''Magnolia kisopa'' (Bush.-Ham. ex DC.) Figlar (Vietnam, Nepal)
* ''Magnolia koordersiana'' (Noot.) Figlar (Malaysia, W Sumatra)
* ''Magnolia lacei'' (W.W.Smith) Figlar (SW China, Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia laevifolia'' (Law & Y.F.Wu) Noot. (Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia lanuginosa'' (Wall.) Figlar & Noot. (Yunnan (China), Nepal)
* ''Magnolia leveilleana'' (Dandy) Figlar (SW China)
* ''Magnolia macclurei'' (Dandy) Figlar (S China, N Vietnam)
** ''Magnolia macclurei'' var. ''macclurei''. (S China, N Vietnam)
** ''Magnolia macclurei'' var. ''sublanea'' Dandy (Guangdong (China))
* ''Magnolia mannii'' (King) King (Assam)
* ''Magnolia martinii'' H.Lev. (SE China, Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia masticata'' (Dandy) Figlar (Yunnan (China), Laos)
* ''Magnolia maudiae'' (Dunn) Figlar (SE China, Hainan isl.)
** ''Magnolia maudiae'' var. ''hunanensis'' (C.L.Peng & L.H.Yan) Sima (Hunan (China))
** ''Magnolia maudiae'' var. ''maudiae'' (SE China, Hainan Isl.)
** ''Magnolia maudiae'' var. ''platypetala'' (Hand.-Mazz.) Sima (s.central China)
* ''Magnolia mediocris'' (Dandy) Figlar (S China, Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia microcarpa'' (B.L.Chen & S.C.Yang) Sima (S China)
* ''Magnolia microtricha'' (Hand.-Mazz.) Figlar. (Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia montana'' (Blume) Figlar & Noot. (Malaysia to Borneo)
* ''Magnolia nilagirica'' (Zenker) Figlar (S India, Sri Lanka)
* ''Magnolia oblonga'' (Wall. Ex Hook.f. & Thomson) Figlar. (Assam)
* ''Magnolia odora'' (Chun) Figlar & Noot. (SE China, N Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia opipara'' (H.T.Chang & B.L.Chen) Sima (Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia philippinensis'' P.Pharm (Philippines)
* ''Magnolia punduana'' (Hook.f. & Thoms.) Figlar (Assam)
* ''Magnolia rajaniana'' (Craib.) Figlar. (Thailand)
* ''Magnolia scortechinii'' (King) Figlar & Noot. (Malay penn., W Sumatra)
* ''Magnolia shiluensis'' (Chun & Y.F.Wu) Figlar (Hainan isl.)
* ''Magnolia sirindhorniae'' Noot. & Chalermglin (Thailand)
* ''Magnolia sphaerantha'' (C.Y.Wu ex Z.S.Yue) Sima (SW China)
* ''Magnolia subulifera'' (Dandy) Figlar (Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia sumatrae'' (Dandy) Figlar & Noot. (Malaysia, Sumatra)
* ''Magnolia xanthantha'' (C.Y.Wu ex Law & Y.F.Wu) Figlar (Yunnan (China))

Subsection ''Elmerrillia''

* ''Magnolia platyphylla'' (Merr.) Figlar & Noot. (Philippines)
* ''Magnolia pubescens'' (Merr.) Figlar & Noot. (Philippines)
* ''Magnolia sulawesiana'' Brambach, Noot. & Culmsee (Sulawesi)
* ''Magnolia tsiampacca'' (L.) Figlar & Noot. (Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi, Moluccas, New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago)
** ''Magnolia tsiampacca'' subsp. ''mollis'' (Dandy) Figlar & Noot. (Sumatra, Borneo)
** ''Magnolia tsiampacca'' subsp. ''tsiampacca'' (Sulawesi, Moluccas, New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago)
*** ''Magnolia tsiampacca'' subsp. ''tsiampacca'' var. ''glaberrima'' (Dandy) Figlar & Noot. (New Guinea)
*** ''Magnolia tsiampacca'' subsp. ''tsiampacca'' var. ''tsiampacca'' (Sulawesi, Moluccas, New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago)
* ''Magnolia vrieseana'' (Miq.) Baill. ex Pierre (Sulawesi, Moluccas)

Subsection ''Maingola''

* ''Magnolia annamensis'' Dandy (Vietnam)
* ''Magnolia carsonii'' Dandy ex Noot. (Borneo, Celebes)
** ''Magnolia carsonii'' var. ''carsonii'' (Borneo)
** ''Magnolia carsonii'' var. ''drymifolia'' Noot. (Borneo)
** ''Magnolia carsonii'' var. ''phaulanta'' (Dandy ex Noot.) S.Kim (Celebes)
* ''Magnolia cathcartii'' (Hook.f. & Thoms.) Noot. (SW China, Burma)
* ''Magnolia griffithii'' King (India, Assam)
* ''Magnolia gustavii'' King (India, Assam)
* ''Magnolia macklottii'' (Korth.) Dandy (W Java, Borneo, Sumatra)
** ''Magnolia macklottii'' var. ''beccariana'' (Agostini) Noot. (Sumatra)
** ''Magnolia macklottii'' var. ''macklottii'' (W Java, Borneo)
* ''Magnolia pealiana'' King (Assam)

Subsection ''Aromadendron''

* ''Magnolia ashtonii'' Dandy ex. Noot. (Sumatra, Borneo)
* ''Magnolia bintuluensis'' (Agostini) Noot. (Sumatra, Borneo)
* ''Magnolia borneensis'' Noot. (Borneo, Philippines)
* ''Magnolia elegans'' (Blume) Keng (Sumatra, Java)
* ''Magnolia pahangensis'' Noot. (Borneo, Philippines)

Subgenus ''Gynopodium''

=Section ''Gynopodium''

=
* ''Magnolia kachirachirai'' (Kanehira & Yamamoto) Dandy (Taiwan)
* ''Magnolia lotungensis'' Chun & Tsoon (S China)
* ''Magnolia nitida'' W.W.Smith (NW Yunnan (China))
* ''Magnolia omeiensis'' (Hu & Cheng) Dandy (Sichuan (China))
* ''Magnolia yunnanensis'' (Hu) Noot. (SE Yunnan (China))

=Section ''Manglietiastrum''

=
* ''Magnolia pleiocarpa'' (Dandy) Figlar & Noot. (Assam)
* ''Magnolia praecalva'' (Dandy) Figlar & Noot. (Vietnam, Malay penn.)
* ''Magnolia sinica'' (Law) Noot. (SE Yunnan (China))

Uses

Horticultural uses

In general, the genus ''Magnolia'' has attracted horticultural interest. Some, such as the shrub ''Magnolia stellata, M. stellata'' (star magnolia) and the tree Magnolia × soulangeana, ''M.'' × ''soulangeana'' (saucer magnolia) flower quite early in the spring, before the leaves open. Others flower in late spring or early summer, including Magnolia virginiana, ''M. virginiana'' (sweetbay magnolia) and Magnolia grandiflora, ''M. grandiflora'' (southern magnolia).

Hybrid (biology), Hybridisation has been immensely successful in combining the best aspects of different species to give plants which flower at an earlier age than the parent species, as well as having more impressive flowers. One of the most popular garden magnolias, ''M''. × ''soulangeana'', is a hybrid of ''M. liliiflora'' and ''M. denudata''.

In the eastern United States, five native species are frequently in cultivation: ''M. acuminata'' (as a shade tree), ''M. grandiflora'', ''M. virginiana'', ''M. tripetala'', and ''M. macrophylla''. The last two species must be planted where high winds are not a frequent problem because of the large size of their leaves.

Culinary uses

The flowers of many species are considered edible. In parts of England, the petals of ''M. grandiflora'' are pickled and used as a spicy condiment. In some Asian cuisines, the buds are pickled and used to flavor rice and scent tea. In Japan, the young leaves and flower buds of ''Magnolia hypoleuca'' are broiled and eaten as a vegetable. Older leaves are made into a powder and used as seasoning; dried, whole leaves are placed on a charcoal brazier and filled with miso, leeks, daikon, and shiitake, and broiled. There is a type of miso which is seasoned with magnolia, hoba miso.

Traditional medicine

The bark and flower buds of ''M. officinalis'' have long been used in traditional Chinese medicine, where they are known as ''hou po'' (厚朴). In Japan, ''kōboku'', ''M. obovata'', has been used in a similar manner.

Timber

The cucumbertree, ''M. acuminata'', grows to large size and is harvested as a timber tree in northeastern US forests. Its wood is sold as "yellow poplar" along with that of the tuliptree, ''Liriodendron tulipifera''. The Fraser magnolia, ''M. fraseri'', also attains enough size sometimes to be harvested, as well.

Other uses

Magnolias are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the giant leopard moth.

Chemical compounds and bioeffects

The aromatic bark contains magnolol, honokiol, 4-O-methylhonokiol, and obovatol. Magnolol and honokiol activate the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma.

Culture

Symbols

* White or Yulan magnolia (subgenus ''Yulania'') is the official flower of the Chinese metropolis Shanghai.
*''Magnolia grandiflora'' is the official List of U.S. state flowers, state flower of both Mississippi and Louisiana. The flower's abundance in Mississippi is reflected in its state nickname, nickname of "Magnolia State" and the state Flag of Mississippi, flag. The magnolia is also the official List of U.S. state trees, state tree of Mississippi. One of the many nicknames for the city of Houston is "Magnolia City". Historically, magnolias have been associated with the Southern United States.
*''Magnolia sieboldii'' is the national flower of North Korea.
*''Magnolia sieboldii'' is the official flower of Gangnam (Seoul), Gangnam.

Arts

Film and television

*Paul Thomas Anderson created a movie titled ''Magnolia (film), Magnolia''.
*''Steel Magnolias'' is a 1989 American comedy-drama film about the bond among a group of women from Louisiana, who can be as beautiful as magnolias, but are as tough as steel. The name 'magnolia' specifically refers to a magnolia tree about which they are arguing at the beginning.

Music

* The folksong "Bungong Jeumpa", from Aceh, Indonesia, means magnolia flower.
* The French song by Salvatore Adamo "Les collines de Rabiah" in the 1970s describes the magnolia trees in Beirut and calls for peace.
* The Grateful Dead recorded a song titled "Sugar Magnolia" that was first released on the 1970 album ''American Beauty (album), American Beauty''. The song made its live debut on June 7, 1970, at the Fillmore West in San Francisco. The semiofficial 1972 Dead movie ''Sunshine Daydream'' has its title taken from the song's coda section.
* Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers second studio album ''You're Gonna Get It!'' includes a track called "Magnolia", written by Tom Petty.
* J.J. Cale (1938–2013) wrote a song about a woman named Magnolia, which has been covered by Poco, Beck and Lucinda Williams.
* "The Scent of Magnolia" is the first track in David Sylvian, David Sylvian's compilation album, Everything and Nothing.
* In 2003, Songs: Ohia released ''The Magnolia Electric Co.'' This was the last release under that project's name for Jason Molina before renaming his band Magnolia Electric Co. after the album.
* "Magnolia" is the fifth track on Australian indie rock group Gang of Youths' debut album, ''The Positions''.
* "Magnolia" is a hit song by rapper Playboi Carti
* In his song titled "Marry Me" Thomas Rhett mentions the magnolia flower.
* In his song titled "Roller Coaster" Danny Vera (singer), Danny Vera mentions the magnolia flower.
* "The Sweet Magnolia Tree" is the eighth track on Doug Wamble, Doug Wamble's 2003 CD ''Country Libations''.
* Singer-songwriter Brian Fallon of The Gaslight Anthem included "Honey Magnolia" to his first solo debut album titled ''Painkillers'' released in March 2016.
* "Magnolia" is an album by progressive rock band The Pineapple Thief. It includes a track called "Magnolia".

Literature

* The 1989 movie ''Steel Magnolias'' is based on a 1987 play, ''Steel Magnolias (play), Steel Magnolias'', by Robert Harling (writer), Robert Harling.
* In the 1939 song "Strange Fruit", originally written as a poem by New York schoolteacher and communist activist Abel Meeropol to condemn the practice of lynching, the magnolia flower was referred to as being associated with the Southern United States, where many lynchings took place:
:::Pastoral scene of the gallant south
:::The bulging eyes and the twisted mouth
:::''Scent of magnolias, sweet and fresh'',
:::Then the sudden smell of burning flesh.
Despite Meeropol's frequent mention of the South and magnolia trees, the horrific image which inspired his poem, Lawrence Beitler's 1930 photograph capturing the lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith following the robbery and murder of Claude Deteer, actually occurred in Marion, Indiana, where magnolia trees are less common.
* In the 1960s, magnolias were a symbol of the South in the popular press: the ''New York Post'' noted of Lyndon Johnson that "A man who wore a ten-gallon Stetson and spoke with a magnolia accent had little hope of winning the Democratic nomination in 1960", and biographer Robert Caro picks up the symbol by saying that when Johnson became president "[t]he taint of magnolias still remained to be scrubbed off."

Visual arts

The Canadian artist, Sarah Maloney, has created a series of sculptures of magnolia flowers in bronze and steel, entitled ''First Flowers'', in which she draws our attention to the dual symbols of beginnings in the flower, as both an evolutionary archetype and also one of the first trees to flower in spring (see illustration).

See also

* List of AGM magnolias

Notes

References

Bibliography

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External links

''Magnolia'' images at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University Plant Image Database
*Friedman, William (Ned)
"Hunting magnolia fruits at the Arboretum."
''Posts from the Collection,'' Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University website, 20 October 2019. Accessed 29 April 2020.
*Dosmann, Michael and Nancy Rose
"Early to Evolve, Early to Flower: Collections Up Close Spotlights the Magnolia Collection."
''Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University'' website, Spring/Summer 2014. Accessed 29 April 2020.
"Magnolia - April Tree of the Month."
''Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University,'' 2014. Accessed 29 April 2020.
*Glasser, Larissa
"Magnolia madness in April."
''Blog of the Arnold Arboretum Horticultural Library,'' Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University website, 19 April 2017. Accessed 29 April 2020.
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{{Authority control

Magnolia,
Magnoliales genera
Culture of the Southern United States
Medicinal plants
National symbols of North Korea
Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine
Symbols of Louisiana
Symbols of Mississippi