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''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater
aquatic plant Aquatic plants are plants that have adapted to living in aquatic environments (saltwater or freshwater). They are also referred to as hydrophytes or macrophytes to distinguish them from algae and other microphytes. A macrophyte is a plant that ...
s, with a
cosmopolitan distribution In biogeography, cosmopolitan distribution is the term for the range of a taxon that extends across all or most of the world in appropriate habitats. Such a taxon, usually a species, is said to exhibit cosmopolitanism or cosmopolitism. The ext ...
. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aquatic plants are perhaps most commonly recognized for having elongate stems with air canals and whorled
leaves A leaf (plural, : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant plant stem, stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", wh ...
that are finely,
pinnate Pinnation (also called pennation) is the arrangement of feather-like or multi-divided features arising from both sides of a common axis. Pinnation occurs in biological morphology, in crystals, such as some forms of ice or metal crystals, and in ...
ly divided, but there are many exceptions. For example, the North American species ''M''. ''tenellum'' has alternately arranged scale like leaves, while many Australian species have small alternate or
opposite leaves In botany, phyllotaxis () or phyllotaxy is the arrangement of leaves on a plant stem. Phyllotactic spirals form a distinctive class of patterns in nature. Leaf arrangement The basic arrangements of leaves on a stem are opposite and alternat ...
that lack dissection. The plants are usually heterophyllous, leaves above the water are often stiffer and smaller than the submerged leaves on the same plant and can lack dissection. Species can be monoecious or dioecious. In
monoecious Monoecy (; adj. monoecious ) is a sexual system in seed plants where separate male and female cones or flowers are present on the same plant. It is a monomorphic sexual system alongside gynomonoecy, andromonoecy and trimonoecy. Monoecy is conne ...
species plants are hermaphrodite, in
dioecious Dioecy (; ; adj. dioecious , ) is a characteristic of a species, meaning that it has distinct individual organisms (unisexual) that produce male or female gametes, either directly (in animals) or indirectly (in seed plants). Dioecious reproductio ...
species plants are either male or female, the
flower A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechani ...
s are small, 4(2)-parted and usually borne in emergent leaf axils. The 'female' flowers usually lack petals. The fruit is a
schizocarp A schizocarp is a dry fruit that, when mature, splits up into mericarps. There are different definitions: * Any dry fruit composed of multiple carpels that separate. : Under this definition the mericarps can contain one or more seeds (the m ...
that splits into four (two) nutlets at maturity. The fruits and leaves can be an important food source for waterfowl, which are thought to be an important source of seed and clonal dispersal.


Invasion and control

Three species (''M. aquaticum'', ''M. heterophyllum'' and ''M. spicatum'') have aggressively invaded lakes, natural waterways and irrigation canals in North America. The U.S. states most affected have implemented control plans. The
Tennessee Valley Authority The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is a federally owned electric utility corporation in the United States. TVA's service area covers all of Tennessee, portions of Alabama, Mississippi, and Kentucky, and small areas of Georgia, North Carolina ...
detected milfoil in its waters in the 1960s. It discounted milfoil's value as a food or feedstock and fought it with chemicals and lowering of water levels. It suggested that water lilies (''
Nelumbo lutea ''Nelumbo lutea'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Nelumbonaceae. Common names include American lotus, yellow lotus, water-chinquapin, and volée. It is native to North America. The botanical name ''Nelumbo lutea'' Willd. is the c ...
'') might deny it sunlight. The widespread invasive
Eurasian water milfoil ''Myriophyllum spicatum'' (Eurasian watermilfoil or spiked water-milfoil) is native to Europe, Asia, and north Africa, but has a wide geographic and climatic distribution among some 57 countries, extending from northern Canada to South Africa. It ...
(''M. spicatum'') is often controlled with
herbicide Herbicides (, ), also commonly known as weedkillers, are substances used to control undesired plants, also known as weeds.EPA. February 201Pesticides Industry. Sales and Usage 2006 and 2007: Market Estimates. Summary in press releasMain page fo ...
containing
diquat dibromide Diquat is the ISO common name for an organic dication that, as a salt with counterions such as bromide or chloride is used as a contact herbicide that produces desiccation and defoliation. Diquat is no longer approved for use in the European U ...
. Control can also be done through careful mechanical management, such as with "lake mowers," but this is a fragmenting plant, and the fragments may grow back. Mechanical management can include the use of a long-reach lake rake or aquatic weed razor blade tool. Using these tools is similar to lawn work. These tools are most effective before seeds set. Infestations can be prevented through the use of a Weed Roller or a LakeMaid. These are automated and unattended machines. Permits may be required by various states. In 2007, Professor Sallie Sheldon of
Middlebury College Middlebury College is a private liberal arts college in Middlebury, Vermont. Founded in 1800 by Congregationalists, Middlebury was the first operating college or university in Vermont. The college currently enrolls 2,858 undergraduates from all ...
reported that an aquatic
weevil Weevils are beetles belonging to the Taxonomic rank, superfamily Curculionoidea, known for their elongated snouts. They are usually small, less than in length, and Herbivore, herbivorous. Approximately 97,000 species of weevils are known. They b ...
(''
Euhrychiopsis lecontei ''Euhrychiopsis lecontei'' is a type of weevil that has been investigated as a potential biocontrol agent for Eurasian water milfoil. It is found in the eastern and central United States and western Canada. Life cycle ''E. lecontei'' is a holom ...
''), which eats nothing but milfoil, was an effective weapon against it. Since roughly 2000, invasive milfoils have been managed by hand-harvesting. Several organizations in the New England states have undertaken successful lake-wide hand-harvesting management programs. Periodic maintenance is necessary; the species cannot be completely eradicated once established, but it can be reduced to manageable levels. Well-trained divers with proper techniques have effectively controlled milfoil and maintained lakes, such as in the Adirondack Park in Northern New York where chemicals, mechanical harvesters, and other management techniques are banned as disruptive. Th
Adirondack Watershed Institute (AWI)
of Paul Smiths College touts the effectiveness of hand-harvesting.


Taxonomy

A detailed molecular phylogenetic study enabled the construction of an infrageneric taxonomy but also revealed that another Haloragaceae genus, the
monotypic In biology, a monotypic taxon is a taxonomic group (taxon) that contains only one immediately subordinate taxon. A monotypic species is one that does not include subspecies or smaller, infraspecific taxa. In the case of genera, the term "unispec ...
''Meziella''
Schindl. Anton Karl Schindler (15 August 1879 in Bremen – 1964) was a German dentist and botanist. He studied botany at the universities of Göttingen, Strasbourg and Halle, receiving his doctorate at Erlangen in 1904. From 1905 to 1910 he conducted ...
, once thought to be extinct, was embedded within it, leading to its submersion within the former as ''Myriophyllum'' subgenus ''Meziella''. This created three subgenera, further divided into sections and subsections: ;Subgenera (type) * ''Myriophyllum'' ('' M. spicatum'' L.) * ''Meziella'' (
Schindl. Anton Karl Schindler (15 August 1879 in Bremen – 1964) was a German dentist and botanist. He studied botany at the universities of Göttingen, Strasbourg and Halle, receiving his doctorate at Erlangen in 1904. From 1905 to 1910 he conducted ...
) M.L.Moody & D.H.Les
('' M. trifidum'' (
Nees Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck (14 February 1776 – 16 March 1858) was a prolific German botanist, physician, zoologist, and natural philosopher. He was a contemporary of Goethe and was born within the lifetime of Linnaeus. He des ...
) M.L.Moody & D.H.Les.
) * ''Brachytheca'' Schindl. ('' M. variifolium''
Hook.f. Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker (30 June 1817 – 10 December 1911) was a British botanist and explorer in the 19th century. He was a founder of geographical botany and Charles Darwin's closest friend. For twenty years he served as director of ...
)


List of selected species

*''
Myriophyllum alpinum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum alterniflorum ''Myriophyllum alterniflorum'', known as alternate water-milfoil or alternateflower watermilfoil, is a species of water-milfoil. It is native to Europe and Asia,has been introduced to North America and inhabits aquatic habitat, such as pond ...
'' DC., 1815 *''
Myriophyllum amphibium ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum aquaticum ''Myriophyllum aquaticum'' is a flowering plant, a Vascular tissue, vascular Dicotyledon, dicot, commonly called parrot's-feather and parrot feather watermilfoil. Morphology and reproduction Parrot feather is a perennial plant. Parrot feather ge ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum artesium ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum austropygmaeum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum axilliflorum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *'' Myriophyllum balladoniense'' *''
Myriophyllum bonii ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *'' Myriophyllum brasiliensis'' *'' Myriophyllum brasiliense'' *''
Myriophyllum callitrichoides ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *'' Myriophyllum caput-medusae'' *'' Myriophyllum coronatum'' *''
Myriophyllum costatum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *'' Myriophyllum crispatum'' *'' Myriophyllum dicoccum'' *''
Myriophyllum drummondii ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum decussatum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *'' Myriophyllum echinatum'' *''
Myriophyllum exasperatum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum farwellii ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum filiforme ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum glomeratum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum gracile ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum heterophyllum ''Myriophyllum heterophyllum'' (English: twoleaf watermilfoil or broadleaf watermilfoil) is a species from the genus ''Myriophyllum'' native to North America. It was first described by André Michaux. Description ''Myriophyllum heterophyllum' ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum hippuroides ''Myriophyllum hippuroides'' is a species of watermilfoil known by the common name western watermilfoil. It is native to the west coast of North America, where it grows in aquatic habitat such as ponds and streams. It generally grows over a mete ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum humile ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum implicatum ''Myriophyllum implicatum'' is a species of water milfoil in the family Haloragaceae Haloragaceae (the watermilfoil family) is a eudicot flowering plant family in the order Saxifragales, based on the phylogenetic APG system. In the Cronqui ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum indicum ''Myriophyllum indicum'' is a species of water milfoil. It is native to India, where it grows in aquatic habitat such as pond A pond is an area filled with water, either natural or artificial, that is smaller than a lake. Defining them to ...
'' Willd., 1805 *''
Myriophyllum integrifolium ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum jacobsii ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum lapidicola ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum latifolium ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *'' Myriophyllum laxum'' *''
Myriophyllum limnophilum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum lophatum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum mattogrossense ''Myriophyllum mattogrossense'' is native to the wetlands of South America. It is commonly used as an aquarium plant, but is in fact a mostly aquatic herb that can grow to 60 cm in length. In nature, it is found almost exclusively in marshes ...
'' *'' Myriophyllum mezianum'' *''
Myriophyllum muelleri ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum muricatum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum oguraense ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum oliganthum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum petraeum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum papillosum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed ...
'' *'' Myriophyllum pedunculatum'' *''
Myriophyllum pinnatum ''Myriophyllum pinnatum'', common names cutleaf water-milfoil, green parrot's-feather, and pinnate water-milfoil, is a species of ''Myriophyllum''. Conservation status in the United States It is listed as endangered in Connecticut. It is also l ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum porcatum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *'' Myriophyllum propinquum'' *''
Myriophyllum pygmaeum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum quitense ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *'' Myriophyllum robustum'' *''
Myriophyllum salsugineum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *'' Myriophyllum siamense'' *''
Myriophyllum sibiricum ''Myriophyllum sibiricum'' is a species of water milfoil known by the common names shortspike watermilfoil, northern watermilfoil, and Siberian water-milfoil. It is native to Russia, China, and much of North America, where it grows in aquatic hab ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum simulans ''Myriophyllum simulans'' is a species of water milfoil native to southeastern Australia where it grows in aquatic habitat such as pond A pond is an area filled with water, either natural or artificial, that is smaller than a lake. Definin ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum spicatum ''Myriophyllum spicatum'' (Eurasian watermilfoil or spiked water-milfoil) is native to Europe, Asia, and north Africa, but has a wide geographic and climatic distribution among some 57 countries, extending from northern Canada to South Africa. It ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum striatum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum tenellum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *'' Myriophyllum tetrandrum'' *'' Myriophyllum tillaeoides'' *''
Myriophyllum trachycarpum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum trifidum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *'' Myriophyllum triphyllum'' *'' Myriophyllum tuberculatum'' *'' Myriophyllum ussuriense'' *''
Myriophyllum variifolium ''Myriophyllum variifolium'' is a species of water milfoil native to eastern Australia where it grows in aquatic habitat such as ponds and streams. Joseph Dalton Hooker described the species in 1840, from material collected in the Lachlan River, ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum verrucosum ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum verticillatum ''Myriophyllum verticillatum'', the whorl-leaf watermilfoil or whorled water-milfoil, is a native to much of North America, North Africa, and Eurasia. It closely resembles another native milfoil, called northern water milfoil (''M. sibiricum'') ...
'' *''
Myriophyllum votschii ''Myriophyllum'' (water milfoil) is a genus of about 69 species of freshwater aquatic plants, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The center of diversity for ''Myriophyllum'' is Australia with 43 recognized species (37 endemic). These submersed aq ...
''


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * {{Taxonbar, from=Q157868 Freshwater plants Saxifragales genera