The exact role of
Mycoplasma hominis
''Mycoplasma hominis'' is a species of bacteria in the genus ''Mycoplasma''. ''M.hominis'' has the ability to penetrate the interior of human cells. Along with ureaplasmas, mycoplasmas are the smallest free-living organisms known.
They have no ...
(and to a lesser extent
Ureaplasma
''Ureaplasma'' is a genus of bacteria belonging to the family Mycoplasmataceae. As the name imples, ''Ureaplasma'' is urease positive.
Phylogeny
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenc ...
) in regards to a number of conditions related to pregnant women and their (unborn) offspring is controversial. This is mainly because many healthy adults have genitourinary colonization with Mycoplasma, published studies on pathogenicity have important design limitations and the organisms are very difficult to detect. The likelihood of colonization with ''M. hominis'' appears directly linked to the number of lifetime sexual partners
Neonatal colonization does occur, but only through normal vaginal delivery. Caesarean section appears protective against colonization and is much less common. Neonatal colonization is transient.
Signs and symptoms
![Xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis cd68](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Xanthogranulomatous_pyelonephritis_cd68.jpg)
Those with urogenital or extragenital infections caused by ''M. hominis'' have symptoms similar to other sexually transmitted infections and its presence cannot be determined by its symptoms. The precise role this organism plays in causing disease remains speculative. Diagnosis remains a challenge because the organism is difficult to culture in vitro. PCR-based techniques are still rare outside research scenarios.
The following conditions have been linked to Mycoplasma hominis:
*
pyelonephritis
Pyelonephritis is inflammation of the kidney, typically due to a bacterial infection. Symptoms most often include fever and flank tenderness. Other symptoms may include nausea, burning with urination, and frequent urination. Complications may ...
*
cystitis
A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection that affects part of the urinary tract. When it affects the lower urinary tract it is known as a bladder infection (cystitis) and when it affects the upper urinary tract it is known as a kidney ...
*
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
*
endometritis
Endometritis is inflammation of the inner lining of the uterus ( endometrium). Symptoms may include fever, lower abdominal pain, and abnormal vaginal bleeding or discharge. It is the most common cause of infection after childbirth. It is also p ...
*
chorioamnionitis
Chorioamnionitis, also known as intra-amniotic infection (IAI), is inflammation of the fetal membranes ( amnion and chorion), usually due to bacterial infection. In 2015, a National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Workshop expert ...
* surgical and nonsurgical wound infections
*
bacteremia
Bloodstream infections (BSIs), which include bacteremias when the infections are bacterial and fungemias when the infections are fungal, are infections present in the blood. Blood is normally a sterile environment, so the detection of microb ...
*
pneumonia
Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung primarily affecting the small air sacs known as alveoli. Symptoms typically include some combination of productive or dry cough, chest pain, fever, and difficulty breathing. The severity ...
*
meningitis
Meningitis is acute or chronic inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, collectively called the meninges. The most common symptoms are fever, headache, and neck stiffness. Other symptoms include confusion or ...
*
salpingitis
Salpingitis is an infection causing inflammation in the Fallopian tubes (also called ''salpinges''). It is often included in the umbrella term of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), along with endometritis, oophoritis, myometritis, parametritis, ...
*
urethritis
Urethritis is the inflammation of the urethra. The most common symptoms include painful or difficult urination and urethral discharge. It is a commonly treatable condition usually caused by infection with bacteria. This bacterial infection is oft ...
*
septic arthritis
Acute septic arthritis, infectious arthritis, suppurative arthritis, osteomyelitis, or joint infection is the invasion of a joint by an infectious agent resulting in joint inflammation. Generally speaking, symptoms typically include redness, hea ...
*
cervicitis
Cervicitis is inflammation of the uterine cervix. Cervicitis in women has many features in common with urethritis in men and many cases are caused by sexually transmitted infections. Non-infectious causes of cervicitis can include intrauterine d ...
''Mycoplasma hominis'' is often present in polymicrobial infections.
Diagnosis
Prevention
If symptomatic, testing is recommended.
The risk of contracting Mycoplasma infection can be reduced by the following:
* Using
barrier methods
Safe sex is sexual activity using methods or contraceptive devices (such as condoms) to reduce the risk of transmitting or acquiring sexually transmitted infections (STIs), especially HIV. "Safe sex" is also sometimes referred to as safer se ...
such as
condoms
A condom is a sheath-shaped barrier device used during sexual intercourse to reduce the probability of pregnancy or a sexually transmitted infection (STI). There are both male and female condoms. With proper use—and use at every act of inte ...
* Seeking medical attention if you are experiencing symptoms suggesting a sexually transmitted infection.
* Seeking medical attention after learning that a current or former sex partner has, or might have had a sexually transmitted infection.
* Getting a STI history from your current partner and insisting they be tested and treated before intercourse.
* Avoiding vaginal activity, particularly intercourse, after the end of a pregnancy (delivery,
miscarriage
Miscarriage, also known in medical terms as a spontaneous abortion and pregnancy loss, is the death of an embryo or fetus before it is able to survive independently. Miscarriage before 6 weeks of gestation is defined by ESHRE as biochemical lo ...
, or
abortion
Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus. An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a miscarriage or "spontaneous abortion"; these occur in approximately 30% to 40% of pregn ...
) or certain gynecological procedures, to ensure that the cervix closes.
*
Abstinence
Abstinence is a self-enforced restraint from indulging in bodily activities that are widely experienced as giving pleasure. Most frequently, the term refers to sexual abstinence, but it can also mean abstinence from alcohol, drugs, food, etc.
...
Treatment
Mycoplasmas
''Mycoplasma'' is a genus of bacteria that, like the other members of the class '' Mollicutes'', lack a cell wall around their cell membranes. Peptidoglycan ( murein) is absent. This characteristic makes them naturally resistant to antibiotic ...
have a triple-layered membrane and lack a cell wall. Therefore, mycoplasmas are not affected by
penicillins
Penicillins (P, PCN or PEN) are a group of β-lactam antibiotics originally obtained from ''Penicillium'' moulds, principally '' P. chrysogenum'' and '' P. rubens''. Most penicillins in clinical use are synthesised by P. chrysogenum using ...
and other antibiotics that interfere with the cell wall synthesis. The growth of mycoplasmas in their host is inhibited by other broad-spectrum antibiotics. These broad-spectrum antibiotics inhibit the multiplication of the mycoplasma but does not kill them.
Tetracyclines
Tetracyclines are a group of broad-spectrum antibiotic compounds that have a common basic structure and are either isolated directly from several species of ''Streptomyces'' bacteria or produced semi-synthetically from those isolated compounds. T ...
,
macrolides
The Macrolides are a class of natural products that consist of a large macrocyclic lactone ring to which one or more deoxy sugars, usually cladinose and desosamine, may be attached. The lactone rings are usually 14-, 15-, or 16-membered. Macro ...
,
ketolides,
quinolones
Quinolone may refer to:
* 2-Quinolone
* 4-Quinolone
4-Quinolone is an organic compound derived from quinoline. It and 2-quinolone are the two most important parent (meaning simplified) quinolones. 4-Quinolone exists in equilibrium with a mino ...
are used to treat mycoplasma infections. In addition to the penicillins, mycoplasmas are resistant to
rifampicin
Rifampicin, also known as rifampin, is an ansamycin antibiotic used to treat several types of bacterial infections, including tuberculosis (TB), mycobacterium avium complex, ''Mycobacterium avium'' complex, leprosy, and Legionnaires’ disease. ...
. Mycoplasmas may be difficult to eradicate from human or animal hosts or from cell cultures by antibiotic treatment because of resistance to the antibiotic, or because it does not kill the mycoplasma cell. Mycoplasma cells are able to invade the cells of their hosts.
Neonatal infection
Neonates, especially if preterm, are susceptible to ''M. hominis'' infection.
Meningoencephalitis
Meningoencephalitis (; from ; ; and the medical suffix ''-itis'', "inflammation"), also known as herpes meningoencephalitis, is a medical condition that simultaneously resembles both meningitis, which is an infection or inflammation of the menin ...
in neonates has been described and M. hominis may be a significant causative agent of
neonatal sepsis
Neonatal sepsis is a type of neonatal infection and specifically refers to the presence in a newborn baby of a bacterial blood stream infection (BSI) (such as meningitis, pneumonia, pyelonephritis, or gastroenteritis) in the setting of fever. ...
or
meningitis
Meningitis is acute or chronic inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, collectively called the meninges. The most common symptoms are fever, headache, and neck stiffness. Other symptoms include confusion or ...
.
''M. hominis'' has been associated with
chorioamnionits.
''M. hominis'' is associated with
miscarriage
Miscarriage, also known in medical terms as a spontaneous abortion and pregnancy loss, is the death of an embryo or fetus before it is able to survive independently. Miscarriage before 6 weeks of gestation is defined by ESHRE as biochemical lo ...
.
References
Using Wikipedia for Research
External links
{{Pediatric conditions originating in the perinatal period
Sexually transmitted diseases and infections
Sexual health
Women's health
Infections with a predominantly sexual mode of transmission