The Mutual Defense Treaty between the Republic of the Philippines and the United States of America (MDT) is a
treaty
A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually made by and between sovereign states, but can include international organizations
An international organization or international o ...
that was signed on August 30, 1951, in
Washington, D.C.
)
, image_skyline =
, image_caption = Clockwise from top left: the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall, United States Capitol, Logan Circle, Jefferson Memorial, White House, Adams Morgan, ...
, between representatives of the
Philippines
The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no),
* bik, Republika kan Filipinas
* ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas
* cbk, República de Filipinas
* hil, Republ ...
and the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
. The overall accord contains eight articles and dictates for both nations to support each other if an external party attacks the Philippines or the United States.
History
The Philippines became a colony of the United States following the
Spanish–American War
, partof = the Philippine Revolution, the decolonization of the Americas, and the Cuban War of Independence
, image = Collage infobox for Spanish-American War.jpg
, image_size = 300px
, caption = (clock ...
and the subsequent
Philippine–American War
The Philippine–American War or Filipino–American War ( es, Guerra filipina-estadounidense, tl, Digmaang Pilipino–Amerikano), previously referred to as the Philippine Insurrection or the Tagalog Insurgency by the United States, was an arm ...
. In 1935, under the terms of the
Tydings–McDuffie Act
The Tydings–McDuffie Act, officially the Philippine Independence Act (), is an Act of Congress that established the process for the Philippines, then an American territory, to become an independent country after a ten-year transition period. ...
, the Philippines became a self-governing commonwealth, the
Philippine Commonwealth
The Commonwealth of the Philippines ( es, Commonwealth de Filipinas or ; tl, Komonwelt ng Pilipinas) was the administrative body that governed the Philippines from 1935 to 1946, aside from a period of exile in the Second World War from 1942 ...
, with full independence planned for ten years later. Delayed by
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
and the
Japanese invasion and occupation of the Philippines, the Philippines became fully independent on July 4, 1946.
Following independence there remained in the Philippines a strong American military presence including a number of
United States military bases in the Philippines, all allowed by treaties between the newly independent Philippines and the United States. There were also a number of treaties that created a strong bond between the Philippines and the United States which gave both countries rights not enjoyed by other nations. The Mutual Defense Treaty Between the
Republic of the Philippines
The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no),
* bik, Republika kan Filipinas
* ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas
* cbk, República de Filipinas
* hil, Republ ...
and the United States of America was signed on August 30, 1951, in Washington, D.C. between representatives of the Philippines and the United States.
A review of the MDT was ordered by
Philippine Defense Secretary Delfin Lorenzana
Delfin Negrillo Lorenzana, OLH, KGOR (born October 28, 1948) is a retired Philippine Army general who served as Secretary of National Defense in the Cabinet of President Rodrigo Duterte from 2016 to 2022. He served in the Philippine Army fr ...
on 28 December 2018 with “to maintain it, strengthen it, or scrap it” as the end goal.
On 11 February 2020, the Philippines notified the US that it intended to withdraw from the
Visiting Forces Agreement
A visiting forces agreement (VFA) is an agreement between a country and a foreign nation having military forces visiting in that country. Visiting forces agreements are similar in intent to status of forces agreements (SOFAs). A VFA typically co ...
, which may impact the MDT.
It reversed its decision in June 2020. In 2021, after the Philippines filed a diplomatic protest over a new Chinese law that may put Filipino fishers in danger, U.S.
Secretary of State Antony Blinken
Antony John Blinken (born April 16, 1962) is an American government official and diplomat serving as the 71st United States secretary of state since January 26, 2021. He previously served as deputy national security advisor from 2013 to 2015 and ...
reaffirmed the U.S. commitment to the MDT.
Specifics
The overall accord contains eight articles and dictates that both nations would support each other if either the Philippines or the United States were to be attacked by an external party.
As stated in Article I of the treaty, each party is to settle international disputes in a peaceful manner so that the international peace is not threatened, and to refrain from the threat of the use of force in any manner that is inconsistent with the purpose of the
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...
. Article II states that each party either separately or jointly through mutual aid may acquire, develop and maintain their capacity to resist armed attack. Article III states that from time to time the parties will consult one another through the use of their secretaries of state, foreign ministers or consuls in order to determine the appropriate measures of implementation. The parties will also consult one another when either party determines that their territorial integrity, political independence or national security is threatened by armed attack in the Pacific. Article IV states that an attack on either party will be acted upon in accordance with their constitutional processes and that any armed attack on either party will be brought to the attention of the United Nations for immediate action. Once the United Nations has issued such orders, all hostile actions between the signatories of this treaty and opposing parties will be terminated.
Article V defines the meaning of attack and its purpose which includes all attacks by a hostile power will be held as an attack on a metropolitan area by both parties or on the island territories under its jurisdiction in the Pacific or on its armed forces, public vessels or aircraft in the Pacific. Article VI states that this treaty does not affect, impede, or shall not be interpreted as affecting the rights and obligations of the parties under the
Charter of the United Nations
The Charter of the United Nations (UN) is the foundational treaty of the UN, an intergovernmental organization. It establishes the purposes, governing structure, and overall framework of the UN system, including its six principal organs: the ...
. Article VII states that the treaty shall be ratified in accordance with the constitutional processes set delineated by the
Constitution of the United States
The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the United States of America. It superseded the Articles of Confederation, the nation's first constitution, in 1789. Originally comprising seven articles, it delineates the natio ...
and the
Constitution of the Philippines
The Constitution of the Philippines (Filipino: ''Saligang Batas ng Pilipinas'' or ''Konstitusyon ng Pilipinas'', Spanish: ''Constitución de la República de Filipinas'') is the constitution or the supreme law of the Republic of the Philippines ...
. Lastly, Article VIII stipulates that the treaty terms are indefinite until one or both parties wish to terminate the agreement. If the agreement is to be terminated, either party must give one year advance notice.
Support
![President Benigno Aquino III with U](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/President_Benigno_Aquino_III_with_U.S_Secretary_of_State_Hillary_Clinton.jpg)
After the
dissolution of the Soviet Union
The dissolution of the Soviet Union, also negatively connoted as rus, Разва́л Сове́тского Сою́за, r=Razvál Sovétskogo Soyúza, ''Ruining of the Soviet Union''. was the process of internal disintegration within the Sov ...
and the decline of the threat of communism in the 1990s, bilateral support for the mutual defense treaty has been varied, especially in the Philippines. Generally, the Philippine government has remained favorable towards the treaty ever since its inception, often coming to rely on the U.S. for its defenses as it has done ever since World War II. This was made apparent during the
Cold War
The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because the ...
by the numerous active U.S. military bases in the Philippines. The most notable and controversial of these bases are
Clark Air Base outside of metro Angeles City, and the
U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay
Naval Base Subic Bay was a major ship-repair, supply, and rest and recreation facility of the Spanish Navy and subsequently the United States Navy located in Zambales, Philippines. The base was 262 square miles, about the size of Singapore. Th ...
. The bases were garrisoned for nearly 40 years after the end of World War II until the early 1990s. In 1991 anti-US sentiment in the Philippines forced the Philippine Senate to reject a new base agreement treaty that subsequently forced the removal of all US forces from Philippine soil.
However, given the rise of global terrorism with the events of
9/11
The September 11 attacks, commonly known as 9/11, were four coordinated suicide terrorist attacks carried out by al-Qaeda against the United States on Tuesday, September 11, 2001. That morning, nineteen terrorists hijacked four commercial ...
and the subsequent economic rise and militant expansion of China, the United States has strengthened its ties to the Philippines and its other Asian allies.
In its 60th anniversary year, in a ceremony held on November 11, 2011, on the deck of the U.S. guided missile destroyer
USS Fitzgerald, docked in Manila, the two governments reaffirmed the treaty with the ''Manila Declaration''. The declaration was signed by Philippine Foreign Secretary Alberto Del Rosario and
U.S. Secretary of State
The United States secretary of state is a member of the executive branch of the federal government of the United States and the head of the U.S. Department of State. The office holder is one of the highest ranking members of the president's Ca ...
Hillary Clinton
Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton ( Rodham; born October 26, 1947) is an American politician, diplomat, and former lawyer who served as the 67th United States Secretary of State for President Barack Obama from 2009 to 2013, as a United States sen ...
. The declaration was a formal affirmation of defensive ties between the two countries that date back over a century.
The declaration states, in part:
In a follow-up to the signing of the Manila Declaration, the U.S. and Philippine representatives met in 2011 to sign onto a new partnership strengthening the economic and defensive ties of the two countries. This new formal agreement was termed ''Partnership for Growth''. This agreement came as a part of President Obama's Global development initiative, which was designed to strengthen the Philippines business development and commercial ties between the two countries.
During the signing ceremony of this agreement Secretary Clinton reaffirmed the U.S.'s position on the mutual defense of the Philippines through the statement "The US will always be in the corner of the Philippines. We will always stand and fight with you to achieve the future we seek".
By 2017, this had evolved into ''Partnership for Growth with Equity'', in line with the 2017-2022 Philippine Development Plan.
Opposition
![Evacuees from Mount Pinatubo board the USS Abraham Lincoln](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Evacuees_from_Mount_Pinatubo_board_the_USS_Abraham_Lincoln.jpg)
Opposition to the treaty has had its periods on both sides of the Pacific. The longevity of the US military presence in the Philippines caused opposition to the treaty to begin in the 1980s, with the escalating tensions surrounding US policy and its repercussions.
The late 1970s and the 1980s saw a rise in anti-American sentiment following the increasing allegations and perpetrations of US military personnel misconduct towards Filipino men and women. The nightclubs and social hotspots surrounding
Clark Air Force Base
Clark Air Base is a Philippine Air Force base on Luzon Island in the Philippines, located west of Angeles City, about northwest of Metro Manila. Clark Air Base was previously a United States military facility, operated by the U.S. Air Forc ...
and
Naval Base Subic Bay
Naval Base Subic Bay was a major ship-repair, supply, and rest and recreation facility of the Spanish Navy and subsequently the United States Navy located in Zambales, Philippines. The base was 262 square miles, about the size of Singapore. T ...
became flashpoints of allegations of assaults by American service members on local Filipinos.
Political tensions steadily grew.
In 1991, the Military Bases Agreement of 1947 was expiring and the
George H. W. Bush administration
George may refer to:
People
* George (given name)
* George (surname)
* George (singer), American-Canadian singer George Nozuka, known by the mononym George
* George Washington, First President of the United States
* George W. Bush, 43rd Presiden ...
in the US and the
Corazon Aquino
Maria Corazon "Cory" Sumulong Cojuangco-Aquino (; ; January 25, 1933 – August 1, 2009) was a Filipina politician who served as the 11th president of the Philippines from 1986 to 1992. She was the most prominent figure of the 1986 People P ...
administration in the Philippines were in talks to renew the agreement. A new treaty, the RP-US Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Security, was signed for the renewal of the Subic Bay lease.
Anti-American sentiment continued to grow in the Philippines and was reflected in the election of a
Philippine Senate
The Senate of the Philippines (Filipino language, Filipino: ''Senado ng Pilipinas'', also ''Mataas na Kapulungan ng Pilipinas'' or "upper chamber") is the upper house of Congress of the Philippines, Congress of the bicameral legislature of the ...
majority against the treaty's renewal. On September 13, 1991, the Philippine Senate voted not to ratify the new treaty.
As a result, the last US military personnel in the Philippines were removed from the bases on November 24, 1992.
![US Flag lowered and Philippine flag raised during turnover of NS Subic Bay](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/US_Flag_lowered_and_Philippine_flag_raised_during_turnover_of_NS_Subic_Bay.jpg)
The opposition movement within the Philippines subsided after the removal of US personnel from the Philippines in the early 1990s but never truly dissipated in its entirety. Anti-American sentiment remained a prevalent social issue within the collegiate community in
Metro Manila
Metropolitan Manila (often shortened as Metro Manila; fil, Kalakhang Maynila), officially the National Capital Region (NCR; fil, link=no, Pambansang Punong Rehiyon), is the capital region, seat of government and one of three List of metrop ...
, and relatively small demonstrations routinely took place outside the US embassy until the early 2000s.
As a result of the unfortunate events surrounding
9/11
The September 11 attacks, commonly known as 9/11, were four coordinated suicide terrorist attacks carried out by al-Qaeda against the United States on Tuesday, September 11, 2001. That morning, nineteen terrorists hijacked four commercial ...
, the US began restructuring and exercising its rights in the treaty as a part of its
War on Terrorism
The war on terror, officially the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT), is an ongoing international counterterrorism military campaign initiated by the United States following the September 11 attacks. The main targets of the campaign are militant I ...
,
which included deployment of US forces to the Philippines in
Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines
Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines (OEF-P) or Operation Freedom Eagle was part of Operation Enduring Freedom and the global War on Terror. The Operation targeted the various Jihadist terror groups operating in the country. By 2009, abou ...
to advise and assist the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP).
2014 Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement
On April 28, 2014, desiring to enhance cooperative capacities and efforts in humanitarian assistance and disaster relief, both governments executed an Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA).
It is designed to promote the following between the Philippines and the United States:
*Interoperability
*Capacity building towards AFP modernization
*Strengthening AFP for external defense
*Maritime Security
*Maritime Domain Awareness
*Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Response (HADR)
The agreement allows U.S. forces access to and use of designated areas and facilities owned and controlled by the
Armed Forces of the Philippines
The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) ( fil, Sandatahang Lakas ng Pilipinas) are the military forces of the Philippines. It consists of three main service branches; the Army, the Air Force, and the Navy (including the Marine Corps). The P ...
at the invitation of the Philippine Government. It contains clear provision that the U.S. will not establish a permanent military presence or base in the Philippines and a prohibition of entry to the Philippines of nuclear weapons. The EDCA has an initial term of ten years, and thereafter will continue in force until terminated by either party after having given a one-year notice of intention to terminate.
2022 assurances
In a 2022 meeting, U.S. vice president
Kamala Harris
Kamala Devi Harris ( ; born October 20, 1964) is an American politician and attorney who is the 49th vice president of the United States. She is the first female vice president and the highest-ranking female official in U.S. history, as well ...
reportedly assured Philippine president
Bongbong Marcos
Ferdinand "Bongbong" Romualdez Marcos Jr. ( , , ; born September 13, 1957), commonly referred to by the initials PBBM or BBM, is a Filipino politician who is the 17th and current president of the Philippines. He previously served as a senat ...
, “An armed attack on the Philippines armed forces, public vessels, or aircraft in the South China Sea would invoke U.S. Mutual Defense commitments.”
See also
*
San Francisco System
The San Francisco System (also known as the "Hub and Spokes" architecture) is a network of alliances pursued by the United States in the Asia-Pacific region, after the end of World War IIVictor Cha, "Powerplay: The Origins of the U.S Alliance Sys ...
*
*
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was an international organization for collective defense in Southeast Asia created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, or Manila Pact, signed in September 1954 in Manila, the Philipp ...
*
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, ; french: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, ), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 member states – 28 European and two No ...
*
ANZUS
The Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty (ANZUS or ANZUS Treaty) is a 1951 non-binding collective security agreement between Australia and New Zealand and, separately, Australia and the United States, to co-operate on military ...
(non-binding)
*
Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty
The Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty (SAMDT), formally Mutual Defense Treaty between the United States of America and the Republic of China, was a defense pact signed between the United States and the Republic of China (Taiwan) effective from ...
(1955-1980)
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mutual Defense Treaty (U.S.-Philippines)
1951 in law
1951 in the Philippines
1951 in the United States
Military treaties
Treaties entered into force in 1951
Military alliances involving the Philippines
Military alliances involving the United States
20th-century military alliances
21st-century military alliances
Cold War treaties
Cold War alliances and military strategy
United States military in the Philippines
Philippines–United States relations