Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (full name: ar, أبو بکر محمد بن زکریاء الرازي, translit=Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī, label=none), () rather than ar, زکریاء, label=none (), as for example in , or in . In modern
Persian his name is rendered as fa, ابوبکر محمدبن زکریا رازی, label=none (see ), though instead of fa, زکریا, label=none one may also find fa, زکریای, label=none (see ). , often known as (al-)Razi or by his
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power ...
name Rhazes, also rendered Rhasis, was a
Persian physician
A physician (American English), medical practitioner (Commonwealth English), medical doctor, or simply doctor, is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through th ...
,
philosopher and
alchemist
Alchemy (from Arabic: ''al-kīmiyā''; from Ancient Greek: χυμεία, ''khumeía'') is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim world, ...
who lived during the
Islamic Golden Age
The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic, and scientific flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 14th century. This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign ...
. He is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of medicine, and also wrote on
logic
Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from premis ...
,
astronomy
Astronomy () is a natural science that studies astronomical object, celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and chronology of the Universe, evolution. Objects of interest ...
and
grammar
In linguistics, the grammar of a natural language is its set of structure, structural constraints on speakers' or writers' composition of clause (linguistics), clauses, phrases, and words. The term can also refer to the study of such constraint ...
. He is also known for his
criticism of religion, especially with regard to the concepts of
prophethood and
revelation
In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form of truth or knowledge through communication with a deity or other supernatural entity or entities.
Background
Inspiration – such as that bestowed by God on th ...
.
A comprehensive thinker, al-Razi made fundamental and enduring contributions to various fields, which he recorded in over 200 manuscripts, and is particularly remembered for numerous advances in medicine through his
observation
Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source. In living beings, observation employs the senses. In science, observation can also involve the perception and recording of data via the use of scientific instruments. Th ...
s and discoveries. An early proponent of
experimental medicine, he became a successful doctor, and served as chief physician of
Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesipho ...
and
Ray
Ray may refer to:
Fish
* Ray (fish), any cartilaginous fish of the superorder Batoidea
* Ray (fish fin anatomy), a bony or horny spine on a fin
Science and mathematics
* Ray (geometry), half of a line proceeding from an initial point
* Ray (g ...
hospitals.
[.] As a teacher of
medicine
Medicine is the science and Praxis (process), practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, Preventive medicine, prevention, therapy, treatment, Palliative care, palliation of their injury or disease, and Health promotion ...
, he attracted students of all backgrounds and interests and was said to be compassionate and devoted to the service of his patients, whether rich or poor. He was the first to clinically distinguish between
smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) ce ...
and
measles, and suggest sound treatment for the former.
Through translation, his medical works and ideas became known among medieval European practitioners and profoundly influenced medical education in the Latin West.
Some volumes of his work ''Al-Mansuri'', namely "On Surgery" and "A General Book on Therapy", became part of the medical curriculum in Western universities.
Edward Granville Browne considers him as "probably the greatest and most original of all the Muslim physicians, and one of the most prolific as an author". Additionally, he has been described as the father of
pediatrics,
and a pioneer of
obstetrics
Obstetrics is the field of study concentrated on pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period. As a medical specialty, obstetrics is combined with gynecology under the discipline known as obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN), which is a surg ...
and
ophthalmology
Ophthalmology ( ) is a surgical subspecialty within medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders.
An ophthalmologist is a physician who undergoes subspecialty training in medical and surgical eye care. Following a med ...
. Notably, he became the first physician to recognize the reaction of the eye's pupil to light.
Biography
Al-Razi was born in the city of
Ray
Ray may refer to:
Fish
* Ray (fish), any cartilaginous fish of the superorder Batoidea
* Ray (fish fin anatomy), a bony or horny spine on a fin
Science and mathematics
* Ray (geometry), half of a line proceeding from an initial point
* Ray (g ...
(modern Rey, also the origin of his
name "al-Razi"),
[.] into a family of Persian stock and was a native speaker of
Persian language
Persian (), also known by its endonym and exonym, endonym Farsi (, ', ), is a Western Iranian languages, Western Iranian language belonging to the Iranian languages, Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, Indo-Iranian subdivision of th ...
. Ray was situated on the
Great Silk Road that for centuries facilitated trade and cultural exchanges between East and West. It is located on the southern slopes of the
Alborz
The Alborz ( fa, البرز) range, also spelled as Alburz, Elburz or Elborz, is a mountain range in northern Iran that stretches from the border of Azerbaijan along the western and entire southern coast of the Caspian Sea and finally runs ...
mountain range situated near
Tehran
Tehran (; fa, تهران ) is the largest city in Tehran Province and the Capital city, capital of Iran. With a population of around 9 million in the city and around 16 million in the larger metropolitan area of Greater Tehran, Tehran is th ...
, Iran.
In his youth, al-Razi moved to
Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesipho ...
where he studied and practiced at the local
bimaristan (hospital). Later, he was invited back to Rey by
Mansur ibn Ishaq Abu Salih Mansur (died 915) was a Samanid prince, who served as governor during the reign of his uncle Isma'il ibn Ahmad, his cousin Ahmad Samani, and Nasr II.
Biography
Abu Salih governed several provinces during the reign of Isma'il ibn Ahmad a ...
, then the governor of Ray, and became a bimaristan's head.
He dedicated two books on medicine to Mansur ibn Ishaq, ''The Spiritual Physic'' and ''Al-Mansūrī on Medicine''.
Because of his newly acquired popularity as physician, al-Razi was invited to Baghdad where he assumed the responsibilities of a director in a new hospital named after its founder
al-Muʿtaḍid (d. 902 CE).
Under the reign of Al-Mutadid's son,
Al-Muktafi (r. 902-908) al-Razi was commissioned to build a new hospital, which should be the largest of the
Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Mutta ...
. To pick the future hospital's location, al-Razi adopted what is nowadays known as an
evidence-based approach suggesting having fresh meat hung in various places throughout the city and to build the hospital where meat took longest to rot.
He spent the last years of his life in his native Rey suffering from
glaucoma
Glaucoma is a group of eye diseases that result in damage to the optic nerve (or retina) and cause vision loss. The most common type is open-angle (wide angle, chronic simple) glaucoma, in which the drainage angle for fluid within the eye re ...
. His eye affliction started with cataracts and ended in total blindness. The cause of his blindness is uncertain. One account mentioned by
Ibn Juljul attributed the cause to a blow to his head by his patron,
Mansur ibn Ishaq Abu Salih Mansur (died 915) was a Samanid prince, who served as governor during the reign of his uncle Isma'il ibn Ahmad, his cousin Ahmad Samani, and Nasr II.
Biography
Abu Salih governed several provinces during the reign of Isma'il ibn Ahmad a ...
, for failing to provide proof for his alchemy theories; while
Abulfaraj and
Casiri claimed that the cause was a diet of beans only. Allegedly, he was approached by a physician offering an ointment to cure his blindness. Al-Razi then asked him how many layers does the
eye
Eyes are organs of the visual system. They provide living organisms with vision, the ability to receive and process visual detail, as well as enabling several photo response functions that are independent of vision. Eyes detect light and conv ...
contain and when he was unable to receive an answer, he declined the treatment stating "my eyes will not be treated by one who does not know the basics of its anatomy".
The lectures of al-Razi attracted many students. As
Ibn al-Nadim
Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq al-Nadīm ( ar, ابو الفرج محمد بن إسحاق النديم), also ibn Abī Ya'qūb Isḥāq ibn Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq al-Warrāq, and commonly known by the '' nasab'' (patronymic) Ibn al-Nadīm ...
relates in ''
Fihrist'', al-Razi was considered a ''
shaikh'', an honorary title given to one entitled to teach and surrounded by several circles of students. When someone raised a question, it was passed on to students of the 'first circle'; if they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the 'second circle', and so on. When all students would fail to answer, al-Razi himself would consider the query. Al-Razi was a generous person by nature, with a considerate attitude towards his patients. He was charitable to the poor, treated them without payment in any form, and wrote for them a treatise ''Man La Yaḥḍuruhu al-Ṭabīb'', or ''Who Has No Physician to Attend Him'', with medical advice. One former pupil from
Tabaristan came to look after him, but as
al-Biruni wrote, al-Razi rewarded him for his intentions and sent him back home, proclaiming that his final days were approaching.
[Kamiar, Mohammad. ''Brilliant Biruni: A Life Story of Abu Rayhan Mohammad Ibn Ahmad''. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press, 2009.] According to Biruni, al-Razi died in Rey in 925 sixty years of age.
[Ruska, Julius. ''Al-Birūni als Quelle für das Leben und die Schriften al-Rāzi's''. Bruxelles: Weissenbruch, 1922.] Biruni, who considered al-Razi his mentor, among the first penned a short biography of al-Razi including a bibliography of his numerous works.
Ibn al-Nadim
Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq al-Nadīm ( ar, ابو الفرج محمد بن إسحاق النديم), also ibn Abī Ya'qūb Isḥāq ibn Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq al-Warrāq, and commonly known by the '' nasab'' (patronymic) Ibn al-Nadīm ...
recorded an account by al-Razi of a
Chinese student who copied down all of
Galen
Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus ( el, Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September 129 – c. AD 216), often Anglicized as Galen () or Galen of Pergamon, was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. Considered to be on ...
's works in
Chinese as al-Razi read them to him out loud after the student learned fluent Arabic in 5 months and attended al-Razi's lectures.
After his death, his fame spread beyond the Middle East to Medieval Europe, and lived on. In an undated catalog of the library at
Peterborough Abbey, most likely from the 14th century, al-Razi is listed as a part author of ten books on medicine.
Contributions to medicine
Psychology and psychotherapy
Al-Razi was one of the world's first great medical experts. He is considered the father of psychology and psychotherapy.
Smallpox vs. measles
Al-Razi wrote:
Smallpox appears when blood "boils" and is infected, resulting in vapours being expelled. Thus juvenile blood (which looks like wet extracts appearing on the skin) is being transformed into richer blood, having the color of mature wine. At this stage, smallpox shows up essentially as "bubbles found in wine" (as blisters)... this disease can also occur at other times (meaning: not only during childhood). The best thing to do during this first stage is to keep away from it, otherwise this disease might turn into an epidemic.
This diagnosis is acknowledged by the ''
Encyclopædia Britannica
The ( Latin for "British Encyclopædia") is a general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It is published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; the company has existed since the 18th century, although it has changed ownership various ...
'' (1911), which states: "The most trustworthy statements as to the early existence of the disease are found in an account by the 9th-century Persian physician Rhazes, by whom its symptoms were clearly described, its pathology explained by a humoral or
fermentation theory, and directions given for its treatment."
Al-Razi's book ''al-Judari wa al-Hasbah'' (''On Smallpox and Measles'') was the first book describing
smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) ce ...
and
measles as distinct diseases. It was translated more than a dozen times into
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power ...
and other European languages. Its lack of dogmatism and its
Hippocratic reliance on clinical observation show al-Razi's medical methods. For example, he wrote:
The eruption of smallpox is preceded by a continued fever, pain in the back, itching in the nose and nightmares during sleep. These are the more acute symptoms of its approach together with a noticeable pain in the back accompanied by fever and an itching felt by the patient all over his body. A swelling of the face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflammatory color noticeable as a strong redness on both cheeks and around both eyes. One experiences a heaviness of the whole body and great restlessness, which expresses itself as a lot of stretching and yawning. There is a pain in the throat and chest and one finds it difficult to breathe and cough. Additional symptoms are: dryness of breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of the voice, pain and heaviness of the head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and anxiety occur more frequently with "measles" than with smallpox. At the other hand, pain in the back is more apparent with smallpox than with measles). Altogether one experiences heat over the whole body, one has an inflamed colon and one shows an overall shining redness, with a very pronounced redness of the gums. (Rhazes, Encyclopaedia of Medicine)
Meningitis
Al-Razi compared the outcome of patients with
meningitis
Meningitis is acute or chronic inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, collectively called the meninges. The most common symptoms are fever, headache, and neck stiffness. Other symptoms include confusion ...
treated with
blood-letting
Bloodletting (or blood-letting) is the withdrawal of blood from a patient to prevent or cure illness and disease. Bloodletting, whether by a physician or by leeches, was based on an ancient system of medicine in which blood and other bodily flu ...
with the outcome of those treated without it to see if blood-letting could help.
Pharmacy
Al-Razi contributed in many ways to the early practice of
pharmacy
Pharmacy is the science and practice of discovering, producing, preparing, dispensing, reviewing and monitoring medications, aiming to ensure the safe, effective, and affordable use of medication, medicines. It is a miscellaneous science as it ...
by compiling texts, in which he introduces the use of "
mercurial ointments" and his development of apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until the early twentieth century.
Ethics of medicine
On a professional level, al-Razi introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas. He attacked
charlatans and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their
nostrums
A patent medicine, sometimes called a proprietary medicine, is an over-the-counter (nonprescription) medicine or medicinal preparation that is typically protected and advertised by a trademark and trade name (and sometimes a patent) and clai ...
and "cures". At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, al-Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of cancer and
leprosy
Leprosy, also known as Hansen's disease (HD), is a long-term infection by the bacteria '' Mycobacterium leprae'' or '' Mycobacterium lepromatosis''. Infection can lead to damage of the nerves, respiratory tract, skin, and eyes. This nerve da ...
the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, al-Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of princes, nobility, and women, because they did not obey the doctor's orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making it most difficult being their physician.
He also wrote the following on
medical ethics
Medical ethics is an applied branch of ethics which analyzes the practice of clinical medicine and related scientific research. Medical ethics is based on a set of values that professionals can refer to in the case of any confusion or conflict. T ...
:
Books and articles on medicine
;''
Al-Kitab al Hawi''
This 23-volume set medical textbooks contains the foundation of gynaecology, obstetrics and ophthalmic surgery
;''The Virtuous Life'' (''al-Hawi'' ''الحاوي'').
This monumental medical encyclopedia in nine volumes—known in Europe also as ''The Large Comprehensive'' or ''Continens Liber'' (''جامع الكبير'') ——contains considerations and criticism on the Greek philosophers
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical Greece, Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatet ...
and
Plato
Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institutio ...
, and expresses innovative views on many subjects. Because of this book alone, many scholars consider al-Razi the greatest medical doctor of the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ...
.
The ''al-Hawi'' is not a formal medical encyclopedia, but a posthumous compilation of al-Razi's working notebooks, which included knowledge gathered from other books as well as original observations on diseases and therapies, based on his own clinical experience. It is significant since it contains a celebrated monograph on smallpox, the earliest one known. It was translated into Latin in 1279 by
Faraj ben Salim, a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by
Charles of Anjou
Charles I (early 1226/12277 January 1285), commonly called Charles of Anjou, was a member of the royal Capetian dynasty and the founder of the second House of Anjou. He was Count of Provence (1246–85) and Forcalquier (1246–48, 1256–85) ...
, and after which it had a considerable influence in Europe.
The ''al-Hawi'' also criticized the views of
Galen
Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus ( el, Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September 129 – c. AD 216), often Anglicized as Galen () or Galen of Pergamon, was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. Considered to be on ...
, after al-Razi had observed many clinical cases which did not follow Galen's descriptions of fevers. For example, he stated that Galen's descriptions of
urinary ailments were inaccurate as he had only seen three cases, while al-Razi had studied hundreds of such cases in
hospitals
A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized health science and auxiliary healthcare staff and medical equipment. The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which typically has an emergenc ...
of
Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesipho ...
and Rey.
;''For One Who Has No Physician to Attend Him'' (''Man la Yahduruhu Al-Tabib'') (''من لا يحضره الطبيب'')—A medical adviser for the general public
Al-Razi was possibly the first Persian doctor to deliberately write a home medical manual (
remedial
Remedy, Remedies, The Remedy or Remediation may refer to:
Computing and gaming
* Remedy Corp, an American software company
* Remedy Entertainment, a Finnish video game developer
Law, politics, and society
* Environmental remediation, the removal ...
) directed at the general public. He dedicated it to the poor, the traveller, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of common ailments when a doctor was not available. This book is of special interest to the history of pharmacy since similar books were very popular until the 20th century. Al-Razi described in its 36 chapters, diets and drug components that can be found in either an apothecary, a market place, in well-equipped kitchens, or and in military camps. Thus, every intelligent person could follow its instructions and prepare the proper recipes with good results.
Some of the illnesses treated were headaches, colds, coughing, melancholy and diseases of the eye, ear, and stomach. For example, he prescribed for a feverish headache: " 2 parts of ''duhn'' (oily extract) of
rose
A rose is either a woody perennial flowering plant of the genus ''Rosa'' (), in the family Rosaceae (), or the flower it bears. There are over three hundred species and tens of thousands of cultivars. They form a group of plants that can b ...
, to be mixed with 1 part of vinegar, in which a piece of
linen
Linen () is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant.
Linen is very strong, absorbent, and dries faster than cotton. Because of these properties, linen is comfortable to wear in hot weather and is valued for use in garments. It also ...
cloth is dipped and compressed on the forehead". He recommended as a
laxative
Laxatives, purgatives, or aperients are substances that loosen stools and increase bowel movements. They are used to treat and prevent constipation.
Laxatives vary as to how they work and the side effects they may have. Certain stimulant, lub ...
, " 7
drams of dried
violet flowers with 20 pears,
macerated and well mixed, then strained. Add to this
filtrate, 20 drams of sugar for a drink. In cases of melancholy, he invariably recommended prescriptions, which included either
poppies or its juice (
opium
Opium (or poppy tears, scientific name: ''Lachryma papaveris'') is dried latex obtained from the seed capsules of the opium poppy '' Papaver somniferum''. Approximately 12 percent of opium is made up of the analgesic alkaloid morphine, which ...
), ''
Cuscuta epithymum'' (clover dodder) or both. For an eye-remedy, he advised
myrrh
Myrrh (; from Semitic, but see '' § Etymology'') is a gum-resin extracted from a number of small, thorny tree species of the genus '' Commiphora''. Myrrh resin has been used throughout history as a perfume, incense and medicine. Myrrh mix ...
,
saffron
Saffron () is a spice derived from the flower of ''Crocus sativus'', commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson stigma (botany), stigma and stigma (botany)#style, styles, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly ...
, and
frankincense, 2 drams each, to be mixed with 1 dram of
yellow arsenic formed into
tablets. Each tablet was to be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of
water and used as eye drops.
;''Book for al-Mansur ()''
Al-Razi dedicated this work to his patron
Abū Ṣāliḥ al-Manṣūr, the
Samanid governor of Ray. A Latin translation of it was edited in the 16th century by the Dutch anatomist and physician
Andreas Vesalius
Andreas Vesalius (Latinized from Andries van Wezel) () was a 16th-century anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, '' De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem'' (''On the fabric of the human body'' ...
.
;''Doubts about Galen'' ()
In his book ''Doubts about Galen'', al-Razi rejects several claims made by the Greek physician, as far as the alleged superiority of the
Greek language
Greek ( el, label= Modern Greek, Ελληνικά, Elliniká, ; grc, Ἑλληνική, Hellēnikḗ) is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece, Cyprus, southern Italy (Calabria and Salento), southe ...
and many of his
cosmological and medical views. He links medicine with philosophy, and states that sound practice demands independent thinking. He reports that Galen's descriptions do not agree with his own clinical observations regarding the run of a fever. And in some cases he finds that his clinical experience exceeds Galen's.
He criticized Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate "
humors" (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. A sure way to upset such a system was to insert a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Al-Razi noted that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature. Thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. (''Cf.'' I. E. Goodman)
This line of criticism essentially had the potential to completely refute Galen's theory of humors, as well as Aristotle's theory of the
four elements, on which it was grounded. Al-Razi's own alchemical experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as "oiliness" and "sulphurousness", or
inflammability and
salinity
Salinity () is the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water, called saline water (see also soil salinity). It is usually measured in g/L or g/kg (grams of salt per liter/kilogram of water; the latter is dimensionless and equal ...
, which were not readily explained by the traditional fire, water, earth, and air division of elements.
Al-Razi's challenge to the current fundamentals of medical theory was quite controversial. Many accused him of ignorance and arrogance, even though he repeatedly expressed his praise and gratitude to Galen for his contributions and labours, saying:
I prayed to God to direct and lead me to the truth in writing this book. It grieves me to oppose and criticize the man Galen
Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus ( el, Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September 129 – c. AD 216), often Anglicized as Galen () or Galen of Pergamon, was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. Considered to be on ...
from whose sea of knowledge I have drawn much. Indeed, he is the Master and I am the disciple. Although this reverence and appreciation will and should not prevent me from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. I imagine and feel deeply in my heart that Galen has chosen me to undertake this task, and if he were alive, he would have congratulated me on what I am doing. I say this because Galen's aim was to seek and find the truth and bring light out of darkness. I wish indeed he were alive to read what I have published.
;''The Diseases of Children''
Al-Razi's ''The Diseases of Children'' was the first monograph to deal with paediatrics as an independent field of medicine.
Alchemy
The transmutation of metals
Al-Razi's interest in alchemy and his strong belief in the possibility of
transmutation
Transmutation may refer to:
Pseudoscience and science Alchemy
*Chrysopoeia and argyropoeia, the turning of inexpensive metals, such as lead or copper, into gold and silver
* Magnum opus (alchemy), the creation of the philosopher's stone
* Menta ...
of lesser metals to silver and gold was attested half a century after his death by
Ibn an-Nadim's book, ''The Philosopher's Stone'' (''Lapis Philosophorum'' in Latin). Nadim attributed a series of twelve books to al-Razi, plus an additional seven, including his refutation to
al-Kindi
Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī (; ar, أبو يوسف يعقوب بن إسحاق الصبّاح الكندي; la, Alkindus; c. 801–873 AD) was an Arab Muslim philosopher, polymath, mathematician, physician ...
's denial of the validity of alchemy. Al-Kindi (801–873 CE) had been appointed by the Abbasid Caliph Ma'mun founder of Baghdad, to 'the
House of Wisdom
The House of Wisdom ( ar, بيت الحكمة, Bayt al-Ḥikmah), also known as the Grand Library of Baghdad, refers to either a major Abbasid public academy and intellectual center in Baghdad or to a large private library belonging to the Abba ...
' in that city, he was a philosopher and an opponent of alchemy. Al-Razi's two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded his earlier ones: ''al-Asrar'' (الاسرار "The Secrets"), and ''Sirr al-Asrar'' (سر الاسرار "The Secret of Secrets"), which incorporates much of the previous work.
Apparently al-Razi's contemporaries believed that he had obtained the secret of turning iron and copper into gold. Biographer Khosro Moetazed reports in ''Mohammad Zakaria Razi'' that a certain General Simjur confronted al-Razi in public, and asked whether that was the underlying reason for his willingness to treat patients without a fee. "It appeared to those present that al-Razi was reluctant to answer; he looked sideways at the general and replied":
I understand alchemy and I have been working on the characteristic properties of metals for an extended time. However, it still has not turned out to be evident to me, how one can transmute gold from copper. Despite the research from the ancient scientists done over the past centuries, there has been no answer. I very much doubt if it is possible...
Major works on alchemy
Al-Razi's works present the first systematic classification of carefully observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in a language almost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity.
* ''The Secret'' ()
: This book was written in response to a request from al-Razi's close friend, colleague, and former student, Abu Muhammad ibn Yunis
al-Bukhari, a Muslim mathematician, philosopher, and
natural scientist.
* ''Secret of Secrets'' ()
: This is al-Razi's most famous book. Here he gives systematic attention to basic chemical operations important to the history of pharmacy.
: In his book , al-Razi divides the subject of "
matter
In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of atoms, which are made up of interacting subatomic par ...
' into three categories, as in his previous book .
:# Knowledge and identification of the medical components within substances derived from plants, animals, and minerals, and descriptions of the best types for medical treatments.
:# Knowledge of equipment and tools of interest to and used by either alchemists or
apothecaries.
:# Knowledge of seven
alchemical
Alchemy (from Arabic: ''al-kīmiyā''; from Ancient Greek: χυμεία, ''khumeía'') is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim wor ...
procedures and techniques: sublimation and condensation of
mercury, precipitation of sulfur, and arsenic calcination of
minerals
In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid chemical compound with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form.John P. Rafferty, ed. ( ...
(gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron), salts, glass,
talc,
shells, and
waxing.
:: This last category contains additional descriptions of other methods and applications used in
transmutation
Transmutation may refer to:
Pseudoscience and science Alchemy
*Chrysopoeia and argyropoeia, the turning of inexpensive metals, such as lead or copper, into gold and silver
* Magnum opus (alchemy), the creation of the philosopher's stone
* Menta ...
:
::* The added mixture and use of solvent vehicles.
::* The amount of heat (fire) used, 'bodies and stones', ( and ) that can or cannot be transmuted into corporal substances such of metals and salts ().
::* The use of a liquid
mordant
A mordant or dye fixative is a substance used to set (i.e. bind) dyes on fabrics by forming a coordination complex with the dye, which then attaches to the fabric (or tissue). It may be used for dyeing fabrics or for intensifying stains in ...
which quickly and permanently colors lesser metals for more lucrative sale and profit.
: Similar to the commentary on the 8th century text on
amalgams ascribed to
Jabir ibn Hayyan
Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Arabic: , variously called al-Ṣūfī, al-Azdī, al-Kūfī, or al-Ṭūsī), died 806−816, is the purported author of an enormous number and variety of works in Arabic, often called the Jabirian corpus. The ...
, al-Razi gives methods and procedures of coloring a silver object to imitate gold (
gold leafing
Gold leaf is gold that has been hammered into thin sheets (usually around 0.1 µm thick) by goldbeating and is often used for gilding. Gold leaf is available in a wide variety of karats and shades. The most commonly used gold is 22-karat ...
) and the reverse technique of removing its color back to silver.
Gilding
Gilding is a decorative technique for applying a very thin coating of gold over solid surfaces such as metal (most common), wood, porcelain, or stone. A gilded object is also described as "gilt". Where metal is gilded, the metal below was trad ...
and
silvering
Silvering is the chemical process of coating a non-conductive substrate such as glass with a reflective substance, to produce a mirror. While the metal is often silver, the term is used for the application of any reflective metal.
Process ...
of other metals (
alum
An alum () is a type of chemical compound, usually a hydrated double sulfate salt of aluminium with the general formula , where is a monovalent cation such as potassium or ammonium. By itself, "alum" often refers to potassium alum, with t ...
, calcium salts, iron, copper, and
tutty) are also described, as well as how colors will last for years without tarnishing or changing.
: Al-Razi classified minerals into six divisions:
# Four spirits ():
mercury,
sal ammoniac,
sulphur
Sulfur (or sulphur in British English) is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formula ...
, and arsenic sulphide (
orpiment
Orpiment is a deep-colored, orange-yellow arsenic sulfide mineral with formula . It is found in volcanic fumaroles, low-temperature hydrothermal veins, and hot springs and is formed both by sublimation and as a byproduct of the decay of another ...
and
realgar).
#
Seven bodies (): silver, gold, copper, iron, black lead (),
zinc
Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. Zinc is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodic t ...
(), and
tin.
# Thirteen
stones ():
Marcasite (),
magnesia,
malachite,
tutty (, zinc oxide),
talcum,
lapis lazuli
Lapis lazuli (; ), or lapis for short, is a deep-blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color.
As early as the 7th millennium BC, lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mine ...
,
gypsum
Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate, with the chemical formula . It is widely mined and is used as a fertilizer and as the main constituent in many forms of plaster, blackboard or sidewalk chalk, and dr ...
,
azurite
Azurite is a soft, deep-blue copper mineral produced by weathering of copper ore deposits. During the early 19th century, it was also known as chessylite, after the type locality at Chessy-les-Mines near Lyon, France. The mineral, a basic car ...
,
haematite (iron oxide), arsenic oxide,
mica
Micas ( ) are a group of silicate minerals whose outstanding physical characteristic is that individual mica crystals can easily be split into extremely thin elastic plates. This characteristic is described as perfect basal cleavage. Mica is ...
,
asbestos, and glass (then identified as made of sand and alkali of which the transparent crystal damascene is considered the best).
# Seven
vitriols ():
alum
An alum () is a type of chemical compound, usually a hydrated double sulfate salt of aluminium with the general formula , where is a monovalent cation such as potassium or ammonium. By itself, "alum" often refers to potassium alum, with t ...
( ), and white ( ), black, red ( ), and yellow ( ) vitriols (the impure sulfates of iron, copper, etc.), green ( ).
# Seven
borates:
natron
Natron is a naturally occurring mixture of sodium carbonate decahydrate ( Na2CO3·10H2O, a kind of soda ash) and around 17% sodium bicarbonate (also called baking soda, NaHCO3) along with small quantities of sodium chloride and sodium sulfate. ...
, and impure sodium borate.
# Eleven salts (): including brine,
common salt
Salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl), a chemical compound belonging to the larger class of Salt (chemistry), salts; salt in the form of a natural crystallinity, crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite. ...
,
ash
Ash or ashes are the solid remnants of fires. Specifically, ''ash'' refers to all non-aqueous, non- gaseous residues that remain after something burns. In analytical chemistry, to analyse the mineral and metal content of chemical samples, ash ...
es,
naphtha
Naphtha ( or ) is a flammable liquid hydrocarbon mixture.
Mixtures labelled ''naphtha'' have been produced from natural gas condensates, petroleum distillates, and the distillation of coal tar and peat. In different industries and regions ...
, live
lime, and
urine
Urine is a liquid by-product of metabolism in humans and in many other animals. Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder. Urination results in urine being excreted from the body through the urethra.
Cellular ...
,
rock, and
sea salt
Sea salt is salt that is produced by the evaporation of seawater. It is used as a seasoning in foods, cooking, cosmetics and for preserving food. It is also called bay salt, solar salt, or simply salt. Like mined rock salt, production of sea s ...
s. Then he separately defines and describes each of these substances, the best forms and colours of each, and the qualities of various adulterations.
:Al-Razi gives also a list of apparatus used in alchemy. This consists of 2 classes:
# Instruments used for the dissolving and melting of metals such as the blacksmith's hearth, bellows, crucible, thongs (tongue or ladle), , stirring rod, cutter, grinder (pestle), file, shears, , and semi-cylindrical iron mould.
# Utensils used to carry out the process of transmutation and various parts of the distilling apparatus: the retort,
alembic, shallow iron pan, potters kiln and blowers, large oven, cylindrical stove, glass cups, flasks,
phials, beakers, glass funnel, crucible,
aludel, heating lamps, mortar, cauldron, hair-cloth, sand- and water-bath, sieve, flat stone mortar and chafing-dish.
Philosophy
Although al-Razi wrote extensively on philosophy, most of his works on this subject are now lost.
Metaphysics
Al-Razi's metaphysical doctrine derives from the theory of the "five eternals", according to which the world is produced out of an interaction between God and four other eternal principles (
soul
In many religious and philosophical traditions, there is a belief that a soul is "the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being".
Etymology
The Modern English noun '':wikt:soul, soul'' is derived from Old English ''sāwol, sāwel''. The ea ...
,
matter
In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of atoms, which are made up of interacting subatomic par ...
, time, and
place).
He accepted a pre-socratic type of
atomism
Atomism (from Greek , ''atomon'', i.e. "uncuttable, indivisible") is a natural philosophy proposing that the physical universe is composed of fundamental indivisible components known as atoms.
References to the concept of atomism and its atoms ...
of the bodies, and for that he differed from both the
falasifa
Islamic philosophy is philosophy that emerges from the Islamic tradition. Two terms traditionally used in the Islamic world are sometimes translated as philosophy—falsafa (literally: "philosophy"), which refers to philosophy as well as logic, ...
and the
mutakallimun.
While he was influenced by
Plato
Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institutio ...
and the medical writers, mainly
Galen
Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus ( el, Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September 129 – c. AD 216), often Anglicized as Galen () or Galen of Pergamon, was a Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. Considered to be on ...
, he rejected
taqlid and thus expressed criticism about some of their views. This is evident from the title of one of his works, ''Doubts About Galen''.
Excerpt from ''The Philosophical Approach''
Views on religion
A number of contradictory works and statements about religion have been ascribed to al-Razi. Many sources claim that al-Razi viewed prophecy and revealed religion as unnecessary and delusional, claiming that all humans have the ability to access and discover truth (including the existence of God) through God-given reason.
[.] According to these sources, his skepticism of prophecy and view that no one group or religion has privileged access to the truth is driven by his view that all people have an equal basic capacity for rationality and discovery of truth, and that apparent differences in this capacity are simply a feature of interest, opportunity, and effort.
Because of his supposed rejection of prophecy and acceptance of reason as the primary method for accessing the truth, al-Razi came to be admired as a
freethinker by some.
According to al-Biruni's ''Bibliography of al-Razi'' (''Risāla fī Fihrist Kutub al-Rāzī''), al-Razi wrote two "heretical books": "''Fī al-Nubuwwāt'' (''On Prophecies'') and "''Fī Ḥiyal al-Mutanabbīn'' (''On the Tricks of False Prophets''). According to Biruni, the first "was claimed to be against religions" and the second "was claimed as attacking the necessity of the prophets."
However, Biruni also listed some other works of al-Razi on religion, including ''Fi Wujub Da‘wat al-Nabi ‘Ala Man Nakara bi al-Nubuwwat'' (''Obligation to Propagate the Teachings of the Prophet Against Those who Denied Prophecies'') and ''Fi anna li al-Insan Khaliqan Mutqinan Hakiman'' (''That Man has a Wise and Perfect Creator''), listed under his works on the "divine sciences".
None of his works on religion are now extant in full.
Sarah Stroumsa
Sarah Stroumsa (1950) is the Alice and Jack Ormut Professor of Arabic Studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. She has contributed several investigations into Jewish and Arabic scholastic philosophy.
In 2021 she was elected to the American ...
has argued that al-Razi was a freethinker who rejected all revealed religions. However,
Peter Adamson holds that al-Razi did not reject revealed religion and was rather a believer in Islam, on the basis of more recent evidence. He states:
It is worth noting that Stroumsa’s work predates Rashed’s discovery of this evidence in Fakhr al-Dīn, so that she did not have the benefit of being able to consider how this new information could be reconciled with the Proofs. That is the goal I will set for myself in this chapter. I should lay my cards on the table and say that I am persuaded by Rashed’s account, and do not believe that Razi was staging a general attack on prophecy or religion as Abū Ḥātim would have us think.
Debate with Abu Hatim
The views and quotes that are often ascribed to al-Razi where he appears to be critical of religion are found in a book written by
Abu Hatim al-Razi, called ''Aʿlām al-nubuwwa'' (Signs of Prophecy), which documents a debate between Abu Hatim and al-Razi. Abu Hatim was an
Isma'ili
Isma'ilism ( ar, الإسماعيلية, al-ʾIsmāʿīlīyah) is a branch or sub-sect of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor ( imām) to Ja'far al- ...
missionary who debated al-Razi, but whether he has faithfully recorded the views of al-Razi is disputed.
Some historians claim that Abu Hatim accurately represented al-Razi's scepticism of revealed religion while others argue that Abu Hatim's work should be treated with scepticism given that he is a hostile source of al-Razi's beliefs and might have portrayed him as a heretic to discount his critique of the Ismāʿīlīs.
[Seyyed Hossein Nasr, and Mehdi Amin Razavi, ''An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia'', vol. 1, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 353, quote: "Among the other eminent figures who attacked Rāzī are the Ismāʿīlī philosopher Abū Ḥatem Rāzī, who wrote two books to refute Rāzī's views on theodicy, prophecy, and miracles; and Nāṣir-i Khusraw. Shahrastānī, however, indicates that such accusations should be doubted since they were made by Ismāʿīlīs, who had been severely attacked by Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā Rāzī"]
According to Abdul Latif al-'Abd, Islamic philosophy professor at Cairo University, Abu Hatim and his student,
Ḥamīd al-dīn Karmānī (d. after 411AH/1020CE), were Isma'ili extremists who often misrepresented the views of al-Razi in their works.
This view is also corroborated by early historians like
al-Shahrastani
Tāj al-Dīn Abū al-Fath Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Karīm ash-Shahrastānī ( ar, تاج الدين أبو الفتح محمد بن عبد الكريم الشهرستاني; 1086–1153 CE), also known as Muhammad al-Shahrastānī, was an influenti ...
who noted "that such accusations should be doubted since they were made by Ismāʿīlīs, who had been severely attacked by Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā Rāzī".
Al-'Abd points out that the views allegedly expressed by al-Razi contradict what is found in al-Razi's own works, like the ''Spiritual Medicine'' (''Fī al-ṭibb al-rūḥānī'').
Peter Adamson concurs that Abu Hatim may have "deliberately misdescribed" al-Razi's position as a rejection of Islam and revealed religions. Instead, al-Razi was only arguing against the use of miracles to prove
Muhammad
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monot ...
's prophecy,
anthropomorphism, and the uncritical acceptance of ''
taqlīd'' vs ''naẓar''.
Adamson points out to a work by
Fakhr al-din al-Razi where al-Razi is quoted as citing the
Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , sing.: ...
and the prophets to support his views.
In contrast, earlier historians such as
Paul Kraus
Paul Kraus (born 1944) is a Holocaust survivor and mesothelioma patient. Kraus was born in and survived a Nazi forced labor camp during World War II. In 1997, Kraus was diagnosed with mesothelioma, a type of cancer caused by asbestos. Doctors ...
and Sarah Stroumsa accepted that the extracts found in Abu Hatim's book were either said by al-Razi during a debate or were quoted from a now lost work. According to the debate with Abu Hatim, al-Razi denied the validity of prophecy or other authority figures, and rejected prophetic miracles. He also directed a scathing critique on revealed religions and the miraculous quality of the Quran.
They suggest that this lost work is either his famous ''al-ʿIlm al-Ilāhī'' or another shorter independent work called ''Makharīq al-Anbiyāʾ'' (''The Prophets' Fraudulent Tricks'').
[.] Abu Hatim, however, did not explicitly mention al-Razi by name in his book, but referred to his interlocutor simply as the ''mulḥid'' (lit. "heretic").
Criticism
Al-Razi's religious and philosophical views were later criticized by
Abu Rayhan Biruni and
Avicenna
Ibn Sina ( fa, ابن سینا; 980 – June 1037 CE), commonly known in the West as Avicenna (), was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, philosophers, and writers of the Islam ...
in the early 11th century. Biruni in particular wrote a short treatise (''
risala'') dealing with al-Razi, criticizing him for his sympathy with
Manichaeism
Manichaeism (;
in New Persian ; ) is a former major religionR. van den Broek, Wouter J. Hanegraaff ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times''SUNY Press, 1998 p. 37 founded in the 3rd century AD by the Parthian prophet Mani ( ...
,
his
Hermetical writings, his religious and philosophical views, for refusing to
mathematize physics, and his active opposition
to mathematics. Avicenna, who was himself a physician and philosopher, also criticized al-Razi. During a debate with Biruni, Avicenna stated:
Nasr-i-Khosraw posthumously accused him of having plagiarized
Iranshahri
Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri ( fa, ابوالعباس ایرانشهری) was a 9th-century Persian philosopher, mathematician, natural scientist, historian of religion, astronomer and author.Daryoush Kargar and EIr, "IRĀNŠAHRI" in Encyclopaedia Ira ...
, whom Khosraw considered the master of al-Razi.
Legacy
The modern-day
Razi Institute in
Karaj
Karaj ( fa, کرج, ) is the capital of Alborz Province, Iran, and effectively a satellite city of Tehran. Although the county hosts a population around 1.97 million, as recorded in the 2016 census, most of the county is rugged mountain. The ur ...
and
Razi University in
Kermanshah
Kermanshah ( fa, کرمانشاه, Kermânšâh ), also known as Kermashan (; romanized: Kirmaşan), is the capital of Kermanshah Province, located from Tehran in the western part of Iran. According to the 2016 census, its population is 946,68 ...
were named after him. A "Razi Day" ("Pharmacy Day") is commemorated in Iran every 27 August.
In June 2009,
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkm ...
donated a "Scholars Pavilion" or Chartagi to the
United Nations Office in Vienna, now placed in the central Memorial Plaza of the
Vienna International Center. The pavilion features the statues of al-Razi,
Avicenna
Ibn Sina ( fa, ابن سینا; 980 – June 1037 CE), commonly known in the West as Avicenna (), was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, philosophers, and writers of the Islam ...
,
Abu Rayhan Biruni, and
Omar Khayyam.
George Sarton
George Alfred Leon Sarton (; 31 August 1884 – 22 March 1956) was a Belgian-born American chemist and historian. He is considered the founder of the discipline of the history of science as an independent field of study. His most influential works ...
remarked him as "greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages".
[George Sarton, ''Introduction to the History of Science'' (1927–48), 1.609]
While ''The Bulletin of the
World Health Organization
The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level o ...
'' (May 1970) noted that his "writings on smallpox and measles show originality and accuracy, and his essay on infectious diseases was the first scientific treatise on the subject".
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
Primary literature
By al-Razi
*
*
Brockelmann, Carl. ''Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur'', I, pp. 268–71 (second edition), Suppl., Vol. I, pp. 418–21. (overview of extant manuscripts of al-Razi's works)
*
Butterworth, Charles E.,
The Book of the Philosophic Life. ''Interpretation: A Journal of Political Philosophy.''
* (edition of the and fascimile of the in ms. Goharshad 953)
* (fascimile of the in a Tashkent ms., with Russian translation)
**Review in
* (critical edition and French translation of )
* (edition of extant philosophical works)
* (edition of , superseded by )
* (German translation of the )
** (English translation of Ruska 1937's translation of the Arabic)
* (contains edited extracts from the a
68ff.
* (pp. 369–393 contain an English translation of two introductory sections of the ; contains an edition of )
By others
* Ibn Al-Nadim, ''Fihrist'', (ed. Flugel), pp. 299 et sqq.
** Translated in
*
Sa'id al-Andalusi
Ṣāʿid al-Andalusī (); he was Abū al-Qāsim Ṣāʿid ibn Abū al-Walīd Aḥmad ibn Abd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn Ṣāʿid ibn ʿUthmān al-Taghlibi al-Qūrtūbi () (1029July 6, 1070 AD; 4206 Shawwal, 462 AH); an Arab qadi of Toledo ...
, ''Tabaqat al-Umam'', p. 33
* Ibn Juljul, ''Tabaqat al-Atibba w-al-Hukama'', (ed. Fu'ad Sayyid), Cairo, 1355/1936, pp. 77–78
* J. Ruska, ''Al-Biruni als Quelle fur das Leben und die Schriften al-Razi's, Isis'', Vol. V, 1924, pp. 26–50.
* Al-Biruni, ''Epitre de Beruni, contenant le repertoire des ouvres de Muhammad'' ibn ''Zakariya ar-Razi'', publiee par P. Kraus, Paris, 1936
* Al-Baihaqi, ''Tatimmah Siwan al-Hikma'', (ed. M. Ghafi), Lahore, 1351/1932
* Al-Qifti,''Tarikh al-Hukama'', (ed. Lippert), pp. 27–177
* Ibn Abi Usaibi'ah,''Uyun al-Anba fi Tabaqat al-Atibba'', Vol. I, pp. 309–21
* Abu Al-Faraj ibn al-'Ibri (Bar-Hebraeus),''Mukhtasar Tarikh al-Duwal'', (ed. A. Salhani), p. 291
*
Ibn Khallikan
Aḥmad bin Muḥammad bin Ibrāhīm bin Abū Bakr ibn Khallikān) ( ar, أحمد بن محمد بن إبراهيم بن أبي بكر ابن خلكان; 1211 – 1282), better known as Ibn Khallikān, was a 13th century Shafi'i Islamic scholar ...
, ''Wafayat al-A'yan'', (ed. Muhyi al-Din 'Abd al-Hamid), Cairo, 1948, No. 678, pp. 244–47
* Al-Safadi, ''Nakt al-Himyan'', pp. 249–50
*
Ibn al-'Imad Ibn al-ʿImād ( ar, إبن العماد) (1623-1679), full name ʿAbd al-Ḥayy bin Aḥmad bin Muḥammad ibn al-ʿImād al-ʿAkarī al-Ḥanbalī Abū al-Falāḥ ( ar, عبد الحي بن أحمد بن محمد ابن العماد العكري ...
, ''Shadharat al-Dhahab'', Vol. II, p. 263
* Al-'Umari, ''Masalik al-Absar'', Vol. V, Part 2, ff. 301-03 (photostat copy in Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyyah).
Secondary literature
*
*
*
*
Badawi, Abdurrahman, ''Min Tarlkh al-Ilhad fi al-Islam Islamica'', Vol. II, Cairo, 1945, pp. 198–228.
*
* Eisen, A. ''Kimiya al-Razi'', RAAD, DIB, 62/4.
*
*
*
*
*
* Hirschberg,''Geschichte der Augenheilkunde'', p. 101.
*
*
Leclerc, Lucien (1876). ''Histoire de la medicine arabe'', Paris, Vol. I, pp. 337–54.
* Meyerhof, M. ''Legacy of Islam'', pp. 323 et seq.
* Mieli, Aldo (1938). ''La science arabe'', Leiden, 1938, pp. 8, 16.
* (a survey of all Latin alchemical texts attributed to authors writing in Arabic, including Latin texts attributed to al-Razi)
*
*
* Pines, S. ''Die Atomenlehre ar-Razi's in Beitrage zur islamischen Atomenlehre'', Berlin, 1936, pp. 34–93.
*
* Ranking, G. S. A. (1913). ''The Life and Works of Rhazes'', in Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Congress of Medicine, London, pp. 237–68.
* Renaud, H. P. J. (1931). ''A propos du millenaire de Razes'', in bulletin de la Societe Irancaise d'Histoire de la medicine, Mars-avril, pp. 203 et seq.
* Rockey, Denyse and Johnstone, Penelope (1979)
"Medieval Arabic views on speech disorders: Al-Razi (c. 865–925)" in: ''Journal of Communication Disorders'', 12(3):229-43.
*
*
*
* (argues that most Latin texts attributed to al-Razi are
pseudepigraphs
Pseudepigrapha (also anglicized as "pseudepigraph" or "pseudepigraphs") are falsely attributed works, texts whose claimed author is not the true author, or a work whose real author attributed it to a figure of the past.Bauckham, Richard; "Pseu ...
)
* (contains a comparison of
Jabir ibn Hayyan
Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Arabic: , variously called al-Ṣūfī, al-Azdī, al-Kūfī, or al-Ṭūsī), died 806−816, is the purported author of an enormous number and variety of works in Arabic, often called the Jabirian corpus. The ...
's and Abu Bakr al-Razi's knowledge of chemical apparatus, processes and substances)
* Shader, H. H., ZDMG, 79, pp. 228–35 (see translation into Arabic by
Abdurrahman Badawi
Abdel Rahman Badawi (Arabic: ) (February 17, 1917 – July 25, 2002) was an Egyptian existentialist philosopher, professor of philosophy and poet. He has been called the "foremost master of Arab existentialism." He published more than 150 wor ...
in ''al-Insan al-Kamil'', Islamica, Vol. XI, Cairo, 1950, pp. 37–44).
* (contains an in-depth analysis of the )
*
* Von Lippmann, E. O. '' Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie'', Vol. II, p. 181.
*
Wüstenfeld, F., ''Geschichte der Arabischen Arzte und Naturforscher'', ftn. 98.
External links
*
"al-Razi" on Islamic Philosophy Online encyclopedia article about al-Razi by Paul E. Walker.
''Lives of the Physicians'' dating from 1882, features a biography, in Arabic, about Rhazes.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Razi
864 births
865 births
925 deaths
935 deaths
9th-century Iranian physicians
10th-century Iranian physicians
9th-century Iranian philosophers
10th-century Iranian philosophers
Alchemists of the medieval Islamic world
Inventors of the medieval Islamic world
Iranian inventors
Pharmacologists of medieval Iran
People from Ray, Iran
Samanid scholars
Critics of religions
Iranian psychologists
Iranian ethicists
9th-century inventors
Psychology in the medieval Islamic world