Mount Ganos ( el, Όρος Γάνος), today known as Işıklar Dağı in

Turkish Turkish may refer to: *a Turkic language spoken by the Turks * of or about Turkey ** Turkish language *** Turkish alphabet ** Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group and nation *** Turkish citizen, a citizen of Turkey *** Turkish communities and mi ...

, is a mountain in eastern Thrace, on the European side of modern-day Turkey. It rises up from the western shore of the Sea of Marmara. The mountain was home to Christian monks and ascetics during the Byzantine period. Byzantine Christian monks and clergymen who lived on the mountain included Patriarch Athanasius I of Constantinople and

Maximos of Kafsokalyvia Maximos of Kafsokalyvia or Maximos Kausokalybis ( el, Μάξιμος Καυσοκαλύβης; died 1365 or 1380; also spelled Kafsokalyvis, from "of the burning hut"), also known as St. Maximos the Hut Burner, was a hesychast monk who lived on Mo ...

Geography

Mount Ganos is basically a small mountain range that runs northeast-southwest at an approximately 70° angle. Its length in this direction is about 35 km, its width ranges from about 8 to 11 km, and its summit is 924 m above sea level. On the north side, Mount Ganos rises abruptly from the Thracian plain. To the east is the Sea of Marmara, where the northern edge of the undersea Tekirdağ Basin also rises up sharply to form Mount Ganos's eastern flank. The mountain's southwestern end falls away steeply toward the

Gulf of Saros Saros Bay or Gulf of Saros ( tr, Saros Körfezi; el, κόλπος του Σάρρου) is a gulf in the Dardanelles, Turkey. Ancient Greeks called it the Gulf of Melas (), before it was renamed. The bay is long and wide. Far from industrial ...

, with the slope in some places reaching up to 50°. Ganos is a steep mountain — the average slope is 24%, and over half of the mountain's surface area has a slope between 10-40°. Two streams cut through Mount Ganos, flowing to the west.

Climate

Generally, Mount Ganos has a semi-humid climate typical of the Marmara region. Because of its altitude, the mountain experiences cooler temperatures and receives more rainfall than the plains below. Its average annual temperature is less than 10°C and its average yearly rainfall is more than 1000 mm.

Soil

The mountain's soil is predominantly classified as the

xeric moisture regime Deserts and xeric shrublands are a biome defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. Deserts and xeric (ancient Greek xērós, “dry") shrublands form the largest terrestrial biome, covering 19% of Earth's land surface area. Ecoregions in thi ...

and the thermic temperature regime. These conditions have led to the formation of various soil orders, including alfisols, andisols, entisols, inceptisols, and mollisols.

Specific areas

To the northeast of Mount Ganos is the Naip Plain, a flat alluvial plain surrounding the Ana Dere river. The plain covers some 500 hectares. Geologically, this area was once a river estuary, and has now been filled in by river sedimentation. In the present day, a lot of irrigated farming is done on the plain. Open-pit mining is also done on the plain to produce raw materials for brick factories. The mountain's hiking and paragliding routes start near the village of Yeniköy, which is an area largely used for farming and animal husbandry. Rapid erosion has taken place in one area in the upper

Kavak River Kavak may refer to: Places * Kavak, Arhavi, a village in the District of Arhavi, Artvin Province, Turkey * Kavak, İskilip, a village in the İskilip District of Çorum Province in Turkey * Kavak, Maden, a village in the Maden District of Elazığ ...

basin in the 21st century. Rills that formed around 2004 developed into gullies by 2011, and the rate of erosion has increased even more since then.

Geology

Mount Ganos forms an area of "anomalous" uplift at the end of the

Ganos Fault Ganos (Greek: Γάνος), now known as Gaziköy, is a neighbourhood of the municipality and district of Şarköy, Tekirdağ Province, Turkey. Its population is 372 (2022). It is a historically important town, located on the Sea of Marmara, ben ...

, which it runs parallel to. The mountain is primarily composed of sandstone and

shale Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock formed from mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g. kaolin, Al2 Si2 O5( OH)4) and tiny fragments (silt-sized particles) of other minerals, especial ...

. It is interpreted as the steep southern part of a

monocline A monocline (or, rarely, a monoform) is a step-like fold in rock strata consisting of a zone of steeper dip within an otherwise horizontal or gently-dipping sequence. Formation Monoclines may be formed in several different ways (see diagram) * ...

, with the lower plains to the north forming the other part. It was formed by slipping along the North Anatolian Fault. On a geologic time scale, the mountain is gradually moving eastward, while at the same time undergoing

subsidence Subsidence is a general term for downward vertical movement of the Earth's surface, which can be caused by both natural processes and human activities. Subsidence involves little or no horizontal movement, which distinguishes it from slope move ...

along the Central Anatolia Fault (which is part of the North Anatolian Fault) and being covered up by sedimentation in the Tekirdağ Basin. This process has been going on for at least the last 2 million years, and has resulted in the mountain being moved eastward by at least 40 km. Four major geological formations have been identified as making up Mount Ganos: the Gaziköy Formation (the oldest), the Keşan Formation, the Mezardere Formation, and then finally the Osmancık Formation (the youngest). These formations are primarily exposed on the south side of the mountain.

Ecology

Due to the prevailing Mediterranean climate, the plant species that grow on Mount Ganos are characteristic of the Mediterranean region.

Wetlands

There are some wetland areas along ponds and streams, mainly in the vicinity of Yeniköy, Yazır and Işıklar. These areas have non-calcareous brown forest soil and plants that require high humidity grow here. Trees and shrubs like '' Platanus orientalis'', '' Salix alba'', ''

Phillyrea latifolia ''Phillyrea latifolia'', commonly known as green olive tree or mock privet, is a species of tree in the family Oleaceae. It is native to the Mediterranean Basin In biogeography, the Mediterranean Basin (; also known as the Mediterranean R ...

'', and ''

Rubus sanctus ''Rubus ulmifolius'' subsp. ''sanctus'', commonly called holy bramble, is a bramble native to parts of Asia and Europe. This plant is very long-lived. An instance of it can be found at the Chapel of the Burning Bush on Mount Sinai, where it is r ...

'' grow in areas along bodies of water. In the "sunny openings" near the wetlands,

herbaceous Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials. Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous" The fourth edition of t ...

plants grow, the most common plants that grow are ''Lamium purpureum'' (var. ''maculatum''), '' Ranunculus constantinopolitanus'', ''

Rumex crispus ''Rumex crispus'', the curly dock, curled dock or yellow dock, is a perennial flowering plant in the family Polygonaceae, native to Europe and Western Asia. Description The plant produces an inflorescence or flower stalk that grows to high. I ...

'', ''

Scirpus sylvaticus ''Scirpus sylvaticus'', the wood clubrush, is a species of flowering plant in the Cyperaceae, sedge family. ''Scirpus sylvaticus'' can reach 1 m, and has triangular stems. ''S. sylvaticus'' widespread in Eurasia, is very common in the European ...

'', and ''

Alisma ''Alisma'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Alismataceae, members of which are commonly known as water-plantains. The genus consists of aquatic plants with leaves either floating or submerged, found in a variety of still water hab ...

aquatica''. Of these, ''Scirpus sylvaticus'' is the most common. Other plants that are less common are '' Arundo donax'', '' Clematis vitalba'', '' Convolvulus arvensis'' and '' Lycopus europaeus''. These wetlands experience pressure from human activities, especially near Yazır.

Meadows

Meadows are mainly found on the flat, fertile plains at the foot of the mountain, often in places where former oak forests have been cleared to make space for farmland. These areas tend to have non-calcareous brown soil to the wetlands. The Naip plain, which has alluvial soil, is especially rich in species diversity. Like other meadow areas, this area faces destruction and conversion into farmland. The meadow flora mainly consists of herbaceous species under the families

Poaceae Poaceae () or Gramineae () is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos and the grasses of natural grassland and species cultivated in lawns an ...

and Asteraceae. The dominant species is '' Lolium perenne''; other common plants in the meadow biome include ''

Anthemis cretica ''Anthemis cretica'', the Cretian mat daisy or white mat chamomile, is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It or its many subspecies can be found around the Mediterranean region, the Black Sea area, Poland, the Caucasus, and th ...

'', '' Avena sterilis'', ''

Bromus ramosus ''Bromus ramosus'', the hairy brome, is a bunchgrass in the grass family Poaceae, native to Europe, northwest Africa and southwest Asia. The name '' Bromus'' comes from the term brome, meaning oats. Unlike most other bromes (''Bromus'' sp.), it g ...

'', ''

Cynosurus echinatus ''Cynosurus echinatus'' is a species of grass known by the common names bristly dogstail grass, rough dog's-tail and hedgehog dogtail. It is native to southern Europe, and it is known in the Americas and Australia as an introduced species and so ...

'' and '' Hordeum murinum'' (subspecies ''glaucum'').

Maquis and garrigue shrubland

Large areas of

maquis shrubland 220px, Low maquis in Corsica 220px, High ''macchia'' in Sardinia ( , , ) or ( , ; often in Italian; hr, makija; ; ) is a shrubland biome in the Mediterranean region, typically consisting of densely growing evergreen shrubs. Maquis is char ...

exist in coastal areas where the sea makes the climate more temperate. Herbaceous flora is less common in this biome, but there is a rich array of flowering plants. The predominant tree and shrub species are ''

Cistus parviflorus ''Cistus parviflorus'' is a shrubby species of flowering plant in the family Cistaceae The Cistaceae are a small family of plants (rock-rose or rock rose family) known for their beautiful shrubs, which are profusely covered by flowers at the ...

'', '' Juniperus oxycedrus'' (subspecies ''oxycedrus''), '' Paliurus spina-christi'', ''

'' and '' Spartium junceum''. Among the lower-lying plants, the most common is '' Glaucium flavum''; other species include '' Avena barbata'' (subspecies ''barbata''), ''

Crupina vulgaris ''Crupina vulgaris'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. Its common names include common crupina, bearded-creeper, false saw-wort, and starry scabious.Hypericum perforatum'', and ''Lolium perenne''. Many maquis areas are close to areas of human settlement and subject to being tampered with. In these areas, various ruderal species occur, especially herbaceous plants. These include '' Centaurea calcitrapa'' (var. ''calcitrapa''), '' Psorolea bituminosa'', ''

Scabiosa atropurpurea ''Scabiosa atropurpurea'' ( syn. ''Sixalix atropurpurea''), the mourningbride, mournful widow, pincushion flower, or sweet scabious, is an ornamental plant of the genus ''Scabiosa'' in the family Caprifoliaceae. It is native to southern Europe. ...

'', '' Echium angustifolium'', '' Euphorbia falcata'', ''

Plantago lagopus ''Plantago lagopus'', the hare's foot plantain, is a species of annual herb in the family Plantaginaceae. They have a self-supporting growth form and simple, broad leaves. Flowers are visited by Heliotaurus ruficollis, Malachius, Metopoplax ori ...

'', ''

Rumex conglomeratus ''Rumex conglomeratus'', known as clustered dock and sharp dock, is a plant of the family Polygonaceae The Polygonaceae are a family of flowering plants known informally as the knotweed family or smartweed—buckwheat family in the United Stat ...

'' and ''Rumex crispus''. There are also areas of garrigue shrubland on "the inside of the skirts" of Mount Ganos. These areas cover more arid and rocky hills, and their plants are adapted to drier environments. The plants tend to be low-profile and are often thorny or hairy. '' Morina persica'' and '' Digitalis lanata'' are widespread in these areas; they tend to grow in single-species clusters.

Coniferous forest

Natural coniferous forests on Mount Ganos are mostly predominated by '' Pinus brutia'', also known as the Turkish pine. The Turkish pine is a congenial species, not very picky about the type of soil it will grow in, although on Mount Ganos it grows most commonly on the eastern side of the mountain, on slopes facing the sea. These areas tend to have bedrock dominated by sandstone, claystone, and siltstone. Most of the plant species in the ''Pinus brutia'' forests are also found in the maquis shrubland. Besides ''Pinus brutia'', the trees ''Cistus parviflorus'', ''Juniperus oxycedrus'' (subspecies ''oxycedrus''), ''Phillyrea latifolia'', ''Spartium junceum'', ''Pistacia terebinthus'' (subspecies ''terebinthus''), and ''Quercus petraea'' (subspecies ''petraea'') grow in this biome. The most common herbaceous plant is ''Hypericum perforatum''; others include ''Centaurea calcitrapa'' (var. ''calcitrapa''), ''Hordeum murinum'' (subspecies ''glaucum''), ''Lolium perenne'', ''Psorolea bituminosa'', and ''Scabiosa atropurpurea''. In areas affected by human activity, there are also some ruderal species like '' Datura stramonium'' and '' Malva neglecta''; as well as ''Psorolea bituminosa'' and ''Scabiosa atropurpurea'', which both are also found throughout this biome. In some places, particularly along the coast and in valleys, the ''Pinus brutia'' forests are under pressure from human activity.

Afforestation Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees (forestation) in an area where there was no previous tree cover. Many government and non-governmental organizations directly engage in afforestation programs to create forests a ...

has resulted in the growth of two new types of pine forest environments. These are predominated by ''

Pinus nigra ''Pinus nigra'', the Austrian pine or black pine, is a moderately variable species of pine, occurring across Southern Europe from the Iberian Peninsula to the eastern Mediterranean, on the Anatolian peninsula of Turkey, Corsica and Cyprus, as wel ...

'' (subspecies ''pallasiana'') and '' Pinus pinea'', respectively. Their area is small compared to natural ''Pinus brutia'' forests. ''Pinus nigra'' grows in scattered tree plantations throughout the area, often mixed with other tree types. This species is resistant to winter cold and drought and mostly grows in inland areas with brown forest soil. Other trees include ''Carpinus orientalis'' and ''Quercus robur'' (subspecies ''robur''). This is often accompanied by maquis vegetation like ''Pistacia terebinthus'' (subspecies ''terebinthus''), ''Cistus parviflorus'', ''Juniperus oxycedrus'' (subspecies ''oxycedrus'') and ''Spartium junceum''. Herbaceous plants are low in both density and species diversity; the prevalent species in this group is ''Lolium perenne''. Recent afforestation efforts, particularly in coastal areas with a mild climate, has tended to prefer ''Pinus pinea''. These forests are still young, and many of the pine trees are still basically just shrubs. They are accompanied by maquis trees such as ''Juniperus oxycedrus'' (subspecies ''oxycedrus''), ''Pistacia terebinthus'' (subspecies ''terebinthus'') and ''Cistus parviflorus''. The relatively light woody plant cover allows a diverse array of herbaceous plants to grow here. The most common is '' Trifolium pretense''; others are '' Anthemis tinctoria'', ''Avena sterilis'', ''Hordeum murinum'' (subspecies ''glaucum''), '' Poa trivialis'', ''Scabiosa atropurpurea'', and ''

Torilis arvensis ''Torilis arvensis'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Apiaceae known by the common names spreading hedge parsley, tall sock-destroyer and common hedge parsley. It is native to parts of Europe and it is known elsewhere, such as North ...

''.

Broadleaf forests

Dry and semi-moist broadleaf forests are found especially in upland regions of Mount Ganos. Several distinct broadleaf forest ecosystems exist on Mount Ganos, based on the predominant type of tree. Oak forests are the most common; they occupy large areas where the climate is temperate, especially on the south side of the mountain. Hornbeam forests occur in a more limited range on the northern face, as well as damp riverbeds throughout the area. Linden forests with a diverse mixture of tree species are found in localized patches, particularly on slopes with a mild maritime climate.

Oak forests

To the south, maquis shrubland gives way to extensive oak forests. These forests span a range of elevations starting at sea level and continuing up onto the mountain. Various oak species populate these forests: '' Quercus frainetto'', ''

Quercus infectoria ''Quercus infectoria'' or the Aleppo oak is a species of oak well known for producing galls (called manjakani in Malaysia, majuphal in India) that have been traditionally used for centuries in Asia medicinally while also used in softening leathe ...

'', '' Quercus robur'' (subspecies ''robur''), and '' Quercus petraea'' (subspecies ''petraea''). Other tree species are also mixed in; some areas contain a mix of broadleaf and coniferous trees, while others are unmixed broadleaf forests. In the unmixed broadleaf forest areas, '' Acer campestre'' (subspecies ''campestre''), ''Carpinus orientalis'', and '' Sorbus torminalis'' (var. ''torminalis'') grow among the predominant oak trees. Particularly in coastal areas, maquis tree species are also mixed in: ''Pistacia terebinthus'' (subspecies ''terebinthus''), ''Cistus parviflorus'', ''Juniperus oxycedrus'' (subspecies ''oxycedrus''), ''Phillyrea latifolia'', and ''Spartium junceum''. The unmixed forests tend to have open space between trees, allowing the growth of diverse herbaceous plants in the understory. The most common herbaceous plant in these areas is ''Lolium perenne''. Other herbaceous species are '' Agrostis gigantea'', ''Avena barbata'' (subspecies ''barbata''), ''Centaurea calcitrapa'' (var. ''calcitrapa''), '' Dactylis glomerata'', ''Hypericum perforatum'', '' Muscari comosum'', and ''Psorolea bituminosa''. The mixed-leaf forests tend to grow in areas with non-calcareous brown forest soil overlying bedrock made of sandstone, claystone, and siltstone. Closer to the coast, the temperature tends to be milder; in these areas, the predominant oak trees are accompanied by ''

Olea europaea The olive, botanical name ''Olea europaea'', meaning 'European olive' in Latin, is a species of small tree or shrub in the family Oleaceae, found traditionally in the Mediterranean Basin. When in shrub form, it is known as ''Olea europaea'' ...

'' (var. ''europaea''), ''Pinus brutia'', and ''Pistacius terebinthus'' (var. ''terebinthus''). Further inland, where the temperatures get colder, more species join the mix: ''Acer campestre'' (subspecies ''campestre''), ''Carpinus orientalis'', ''

Fraxinus ornus ''Fraxinus'' (), commonly called ash, is a genus of flowering plants in the olive and lilac family, Oleaceae. It contains 45–65 species of usually medium to large trees, mostly deciduous, though a number of subtropical species are evergr ...

'', and ''Platanus orientalis''. Herbaceous plant growth covers about 60% of the mixed-leaf forests' area and, like the unmixed forests, is dominated by ''Lolium perenne''. Other herbaceous species in these areas include ''

Agrostis stolonifera ''Agrostis stolonifera'' (creeping bentgrass, creeping bent, fiorin, spreading bent or carpet bentgrass) is a perennial grass species in the family Poaceae. Description ''Agrostis stolonifera'' is stoloniferous and may form mats or tufts. The p ...

'', ''Anthemis tinctoria'' (var. ''tinctoria''), '' Briza maxima'', ''Glaucium flavum'', '' Helianthemum nummularium'', '' Origanum vulgare'', ''

Phleum subulatum ''Phleum'' (timothy) is a genus of annual and perennial plants in the grass family. The genus is native to Europe, Asia and north Africa, with one species (''P. alpinum'') also in North and South America. They are tufted grasses growing to 20 ...

'', ''Psorolea bituminosa'', ''

Rapistrum rugosum ''Rapistrum rugosum'' is a species of flowering plant in the mustard family known by the common names annual bastardcabbage, common giant mustard or turnipweed. It is native to Eurasia and parts of Africa, and it is present throughout the world as ...

'', and ''Scabiosa atropurpurea''. In some places, the oak forests have been destroyed by human activity, turning them into maquis shrubland. In these areas, the typical maquis species are accompanied by ruderal species such as ''Centaurea calcitrapa'' (var. ''calcitrapa''), '' Crepis vesicaria'', ''Plantago lanceolata'', ''Psorolea bituminosa'', '' Euphorbia amygdaloides'' (var. ''amygdaloides''), '' Malva sylvestris'', '' Cirsium italicum'', ''Dactylis glomerata'' (subspecies ''hispanica''), and ''Hypericum perforatum''. Because of the low tree cover, there is thick growth of grassy plants, and a high diversity of species. The predominant species is ''Lolium perenne''.

Hornbeam forests

Forests predominated by ''

Carpinus orientalis ''Carpinus orientalis'', known as the Oriental hornbeam, is a hornbeam native to Hungary, the Balkans, Italy, Crimea, Turkey, Iran, and the Caucasus. and occurs usually on hot dry sites at lower altitudes in comparison to the ''Carpinus betulus' ...

'', the eastern hornbeam, are less common on Mount Ganos than oak forests. Other tree species mixed in include ''Acer campestre'' (subspecies ''campestre''), ''Fraxinus ornus'', and ''Quercus robur'' (subspecies ''robur''). The tree and shrub cover in these hornbeam forests is extensive, which inhibits growth of herbaceous plants below. The predominant species of this layer is ''Torilis arvensis''. Other species include ''Anthemis cretica'', '' Cirsium baytopae'', ''Digitalis lanata'', ''

Melilotus alba ''Melilotus albus'', known as honey clover, white melilot (UK), Bokhara clover (Australia), white sweetclover (USA), and sweet clover, is a nitrogen-fixing legume in the family Fabaceae. ''Melilotus albus'' is considered a valuable honey plant ...

'', '' Onopordum tauricum'', and Raphanus rapistrum.

Linden forests

Locally, there are patches of forest where the main species is ''

Tilia argentea ''Tilia tomentosa'', known as silver linden in the US and silver lime in the UK, is a species of flowering plant in the family Malvaceae, native to southeastern Europe and southwestern Asia, from Romania and the Balkans east to western Turkey, oc ...

'', the silver linden. These grow in brown forest soils on bedrock containing a mixture of sandstone, claystone, and siltstone. The lindens are mixed in with oak, ash, and hornbeam trees. Shrubs include '' Ligustrum vulgare'', '' Rosa canina'', ''

Rubus hirtus ''Rubus hirtus'' is a species of flowering plant in the ''Rubus'' section (the blackberries) of the genus ''Rubus'', family Rosaceae Rosaceae (), the rose family, is a medium-sized family of flowering plants that includes 4,828 known specie ...

'', and '' Smilax excelsa'', but their coverage rate is relatively low, allowing herbaceous plants to grow in the understory. The dominant herbaceous plant species is ''Ranunculus constantinopolitanus''; other common species include ''Anthemis cretica'', '' Brachypodium sylvaticum'', ''Centaurea calcitrapa'' (var. ''calcitrapa''), ''

'', '' Euphorbia helioscopia'', '' Geraniaum molle'', '' Hypericum bithynicum'', ''Lolium perenne'', ''Poa trivialis'', and ''Trifolium campestre''. ''

Asperula tenella ''Asperula'', commonly known as woodruff, is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. It contains 194 species and has a wide distribution area from Europe, northern Africa, temperate and subtropical Asia to Australasia. Species * ' ...

'' and '' Cardamine pratensis'' are more rarely seen.

References

{{reflist Byzantine Anatolia Eastern Orthodox monasteries in Asia Geography of the Byzantine Empire

Ganos Ganos (Greek: Γάνος), now known as Gaziköy, is a neighbourhood of the municipality and district of Şarköy, Tekirdağ Province, Turkey. Its population is 372 (2022). It is a historically important town, located on the Sea of Marmara, bene ...

Landforms of Tekirdağ Province

Geography of Thrace