Mortification of the flesh is an act by which an individual or group seeks to mortify or deaden their
sinful nature, as a part of the process of
sanctification.
In
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
, mortification of the flesh is undertaken in order to repent for
sins
In a religious context, sin is a transgression against divine law. Each culture has its own interpretation of what it means to commit a sin. While sins are generally considered actions, any thought, word, or act considered immoral, selfish, s ...
and share in the
Passion of Jesus
In Christianity, the Passion (from the Latin verb ''patior, passus sum''; "to suffer, bear, endure", from which also "patience, patient", etc.) is the short final period in the life of Jesus Christ.
Depending on one's views, the "Passion" m ...
.
Common forms of Christian mortification that are practiced to this day include
fasting
Fasting is the abstention from eating and sometimes drinking. From a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (see " Breakfast"), or to the metabolic state achieved after ...
,
abstinence, as well as pious
kneeling
Kneeling is a basic human position where one or both knees touch the ground. Kneeling is defined as “to position the body so that one or both knees rest on the floor,” according to Merriam-Webster. Kneeling when only composed of one knee, and ...
.
Also common among Christian religious orders in the past were the wearing of
sackcloth
Sackcloth ( ''śaq'') is a coarsely woven fabric, usually made of goat's hair. The term in English often connotes the biblical usage, where the '' Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible'' remarks that haircloth would be more appropriate rendering of th ...
, as well as
self-flagellation in imitation of
Jesus Christ
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
's suffering and death.
Christian theology holds that the
Holy Spirit helps believers in the "mortification of the sins of the flesh."
Verses in the
Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) considered to be precursors to Christian ideas of self-mortification include Zechariah 13:6 and 1 Kings 18:28–29.
Although the term 'mortification of the flesh', which is derived from the
King James version of Romans 8:13 and Colossians 3:5, is primarily used in a Christian context,
other cultures may have analogous concepts of
self-denial
Self-denial (related but different from self-abnegation or self-sacrifice) is an act of letting go of the self as with Altruism, altruistic abstinence – the willingness to forgo personal pleasures or undergo personal trials in the pursuit of th ...
; secular practices exist as well. Some forms unique to various Asian cultures are carrying heavy loads and immersion in water.
Christianity
Etymology
The term "mortification of the flesh" comes from the
Book of Romans
The Epistle to the Romans is the sixth book in the New Testament, and the longest of the thirteen Pauline epistles. Biblical scholars agree that it was composed by Paul the Apostle to explain that salvation is offered through the gospel of J ...
8:13 in the
New Testament
The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Chri ...
: "For if you live according to the flesh you will die, but if by the Spirit you put to death the deeds of the body you will live."
The same idea is seen in other verses, such as Colossians 3:5 ("Put to death what is earthly in you: fornication, impurity, passion, evil desire, and covetousness, which is idolatry") and Galatians 5:24 ("And those who belong to Christ Jesus have crucified the flesh with its passions and desires"). Support for such behavior in the
Old Testament is found in some verses such as Proverbs 20:30: "Blows that wound cleanse away evil; strokes make clean the innermost parts."
According to Christian
exegesis
Exegesis ( ; from the Greek , from , "to lead out") is a critical explanation or interpretation of a text. The term is traditionally applied to the interpretation of Biblical works. In modern usage, exegesis can involve critical interpretation ...
, "deeds of the body" and "what is earthly" refer to the "wounded nature" of man or his
concupiscence
Concupiscence (from Late Latin noun ''concupiscentia'', from the Latin verb '' concupiscence'', from ''con-'', "with", here an intensifier, + ''cupi(d)-'', "desiring" + ''-escere'', a verb-forming suffix denoting beginning of a process or state) i ...
(evil inclinations as a consequence of the
Fall of Man
The fall of man, the fall of Adam, or simply the Fall, is a term used in Christianity to describe the transition of the first man and woman from a state of innocent obedience to God to a state of guilty disobedience.
*
*
*
* The doctrine of the ...
); humanity suffers the consequences of the
original sin through temptation to sin. The Apostle Paul, who authored Romans, expected believers to "put to death" the deeds of the flesh.
The word for 'flesh' in
Koine Greek
Koine Greek (; Koine el, ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος, hē koinè diálektos, the common dialect; ), also known as Hellenistic Greek, common Attic, the Alexandrian dialect, Biblical Greek or New Testament Greek, was the common supra-reg ...
, the language in which the New Testament was originally written, is (), a word denoting the fallen or sinful elements, parts, and proclivities of humanity. This word is juxtaposed in Romans 8:13 with the term used for 'body' (), which more strictly refers to the physical body of a human. Thus in Romans 8:13, Paul draws a parallel between fallen people, with proclivities to sin without chance of redemption, and redeemed people, who are so changed that mortification of their fleshly sin can turn to bodily life, from to .
Forms of mortification
In its simplest form, mortification of the flesh can mean merely denying oneself certain pleasures, such as permanently or temporarily
abstaining (i.e.
fasting
Fasting is the abstention from eating and sometimes drinking. From a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (see " Breakfast"), or to the metabolic state achieved after ...
), from meat,
alcoholic beverages
An alcoholic beverage (also called an alcoholic drink, adult beverage, or a drink) is a drink that contains ethanol, a type of alcohol that acts as a drug and is produced by fermentation of grains, fruits, or other sources of sugar. The cons ...
, sexual relations, or an area of life that makes the person's spiritual life more difficult or burdensome. It can also be practiced by choosing a simple or even impoverished lifestyle; this is often one reason many
monastics of various Christian denominations take vows of poverty. Among votarists, traditional forms of physical mortification are
chain cilices and hair-shirts. In some of its more severe forms, it can mean using a
discipline to flagellate oneself and a
spugna
A spugna is an instrument of penance used by some Christians who practice mortification of the flesh. With the word "spugna" literally meaning "sponge", spugnas are made from circular shaped cork that contains metal studs, metal spikes, or needle ...
to beat oneself.
Purposes
Mortification of the flesh is undertaken by Christians in order to repent of
sins
In a religious context, sin is a transgression against divine law. Each culture has its own interpretation of what it means to commit a sin. While sins are generally considered actions, any thought, word, or act considered immoral, selfish, s ...
and share in the
Passion of Jesus
In Christianity, the Passion (from the Latin verb ''patior, passus sum''; "to suffer, bear, endure", from which also "patience, patient", etc.) is the short final period in the life of Jesus Christ.
Depending on one's views, the "Passion" m ...
.
Through the centuries, some Christians have practiced voluntary penances as a way of imitating Jesus who, according to the New Testament, voluntarily accepted the sufferings of his passion and death on the cross at Calvary in order to redeem humankind.
Some Christians note that the cross carried by Jesus is the crossbar or ''patibulum'', a rough tree trunk, which probably weighed between . Jesus also fasted for 40 days and 40 nights, an example of submission to the first person of the Trinity, God the Father, and as a way of preparing for ministry.
The early Christians mortified the flesh through martyrdom and through what has been called "confession of the faith": accepting torture in a joyful way. As
Christians experienced persecution, they often embraced their fate of suffering due to their love for Christ and the transformation they said they experienced from following him; these individuals became
martyrs
A martyr (, ''mártys'', "witness", or , ''marturia'', stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external ...
of the Christian faith.
Jerome
Jerome (; la, Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος; – 30 September 420), also known as Jerome of Stridon, was a Christian priest, confessor, theologian, and historian; he is co ...
, a Western church father and biblical scholar who translated the Bible into Latin (the Vulgate), was famous for his severe penances in the desert.
Instruments of penance
![Guardia Sanframondi (31500390952)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Guardia_Sanframondi_%2831500390952%29.jpg)
Christians practicing mortification of the flesh often use instruments of penance as they repent, with the purpose of being contrite and sharing in the suffering of Jesus. These include the following:
*
Discipline, a scourge usually having seven tails (representing the seven deadly sins and seven virtues) for self-flagellation of the back
*
Hairshirt
A cilice , also known as a sackcloth, was originally a garment or undergarment made of coarse cloth or animal hair (a hairshirt) worn close to the skin. It is used by members of various Christian traditions (including the Catholic, Lutheran, A ...
, a garment made of camel's hair or sackcloth worn to cause the Christian mild discomfort
*
Chain cilice, a wire chain worn around the legs to cause the penitent mild discomfort
*
Spugna
A spugna is an instrument of penance used by some Christians who practice mortification of the flesh. With the word "spugna" literally meaning "sponge", spugnas are made from circular shaped cork that contains metal studs, metal spikes, or needle ...
, a round cork containing metal studs, metal spikes or needles that is used to beat one's chest
*
Cross
A cross is a geometrical figure consisting of two intersecting lines or bars, usually perpendicular to each other. The lines usually run vertically and horizontally. A cross of oblique lines, in the shape of the Latin letter X, is termed a sa ...
, which is carried in the
imitation of Christ
In Christian theology, the imitation of Christ is the practice of following the example of Jesus.''A concise dictionary of theology'' by Gerald O'Collins, Edward G. Farrugia 2004 page 115''Imitating Jesus: an inclusive approach to New Testament ...
, especially in
Lent
Lent ( la, Quadragesima, 'Fortieth') is a solemn religious observance in the liturgical calendar commemorating the 40 days Jesus spent fasting in the desert and enduring temptation by Satan, according to the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke ...
en processions
File:Christian discipline used in mortification of the flesh.jpg, Discipline
File:Christian Hairshirt.jpg, Hairshirt
A cilice , also known as a sackcloth, was originally a garment or undergarment made of coarse cloth or animal hair (a hairshirt) worn close to the skin. It is used by members of various Christian traditions (including the Catholic, Lutheran, A ...
File:Cilice.jpg, Chain Cilice
File:Guardia Sanframondi - spugna dei battenti.jpg, Spugna
A spugna is an instrument of penance used by some Christians who practice mortification of the flesh. With the word "spugna" literally meaning "sponge", spugnas are made from circular shaped cork that contains metal studs, metal spikes, or needle ...
File:Stuttgart 2009 040 (RaBoe).jpg, Cross
A cross is a geometrical figure consisting of two intersecting lines or bars, usually perpendicular to each other. The lines usually run vertically and horizontally. A cross of oblique lines, in the shape of the Latin letter X, is termed a sa ...
Denominational practices
Catholicism
![Battenti guardia1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Battenti_guardia1.jpg)
Some canonized Catholic saints and founders of Catholic religious organizations practiced mortification in order to imitate
Christ
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
. Another way of mortification that developed quickly in the early centuries was
celibacy, which the Catholic tradition interprets as renouncing the joy of human marriage for a superior chastity and higher supernatural ends (cf. ''
Works of Supererogation''). for the sake of Christ.
Lutheranism
The
Augsburg Confession of the
Lutheran Church supports the practice of mortification of the flesh, stating:
In the
Lutheran
Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Cathol ...
tradition, mortification of the flesh is not done in order to earn
merit
Merit may refer to:
Religion
* Merit (Christianity)
* Merit (Buddhism)
* Punya (Hinduism)
* Imputed righteousness in Reformed Christianity
Companies and brands
* Merit (cigarette), a brand of cigarettes made by Altria
* Merit Energy Company, ...
, but instead to "keep the body in a condition such that it does not hinder one from doing what one has been commanded to do, according to one's calling ( la, juxta vocationem suam, links=no)."
In ''
The Ninety-Five Theses
The ''Ninety-five Theses'' or ''Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences''-The title comes from the 1517 Basel pamphlet printing. The first printings of the ''Theses'' use an incipit rather than a title which summarizes the content ...
'',
Martin Luther
Martin Luther (; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, and professor, and Augustinian friar. He is the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation and the namesake of Lutherani ...
stated that "inner repentance is worthless unless it produces various outward mortification of the flesh." He practiced mortification of the flesh through
fasting
Fasting is the abstention from eating and sometimes drinking. From a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (see " Breakfast"), or to the metabolic state achieved after ...
and
self-flagellation, even sleeping in a stone cell without a blanket.
Methodism
Samuel Wesley Sr. examined the writings of
Thomas à Kempis
Thomas à Kempis (c. 1380 – 25 July 1471; german: Thomas von Kempen; nl, Thomas van Kempen) was a German-Dutch canon regular of the late medieval period and the author of '' The Imitation of Christ'', published anonymously in Latin in the ...
on the mortification of the flesh and concluded that "mortification is still an indispensable Christian duty."
His son,
John Wesley, the evangelical Christian progenitor of the
Methodist Church continued "to hold à Kempis in high regard".
As such, he likewise wrote that "efforts to manifest true faith would be 'quickened' by self mortification and entire obedience".
Moreover, he "spoke approvingly of 'voluntary instances of mortification' in his journals".
Methodist
circuit riders were known for practicing the
spiritual discipline
A spiritual practice or spiritual discipline (often including spiritual exercises) is the regular or full-time performance of actions and activities undertaken for the purpose of inducing spiritual experiences and cultivating spiritual developm ...
of mortifying the flesh as they "arose well before dawn for solitary prayer; they remained on their knees
without food or drink or physical comforts sometimes for hours on end".
John Cennick
John Cennick (12 December 1718 – 4 July 1755) was an English Methodist and Moravian evangelist and hymnwriter. He was born in Reading, Berkshire, England to an Anglican family and raised in the Church of England.
According to Moravian Bisho ...
, the first Methodist
itinerant preacher
An itinerant preacher (also known as an itinerant minister or evangelist or circuit rider) is a Christian evangelist who preaches the basic Christian redemption message while traveling around to different groups of people within a relatively shor ...
,
prayed nine times a day, fasted and "fancying dry bread too great an indulgence for so great a sinner as himself, he began to feed on potatoes, acorns, crabs, and grass".
The Methodist
evangelist John Wesley Childs was known for "limiting what he would eat" and choosing "to walk beside his horse rather than to ride in order to demonstrate his willingness to suffer for his calling and to try
ngto heighten his religious experience through subjecting himself to trials."
The ''
Wesleyan Methodist Magazine
The ''Wesleyan Methodist Magazine'' was a monthly Methodist magazine published between 1778 and 1969. Founded by John Wesley as the ''Arminian Magazine'', it was retitled the ''Methodist Magazine'' in 1798 and as the ''Wesleyan Methodist Magazi ...
'' in 1813 published a statement written by
Matthew Henry for Christian believers:
Western Orthodoxy
The
Antiochian Western Rite Vicariate
The Antiochian Western Rite Vicariate (AWRV) is a Western rite vicariate of parishes and missions "that worship according to traditional Western Christian liturgical forms" within the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America of ...
states that "mortification of the flesh, or the putting to death of the passions which hinder attainment of the
kingdom of heaven, is practiced with three disciplines of
self-denial
Self-denial (related but different from self-abnegation or self-sacrifice) is an act of letting go of the self as with Altruism, altruistic abstinence – the willingness to forgo personal pleasures or undergo personal trials in the pursuit of th ...
".
These
spiritual discipline
A spiritual practice or spiritual discipline (often including spiritual exercises) is the regular or full-time performance of actions and activities undertaken for the purpose of inducing spiritual experiences and cultivating spiritual developm ...
s include "unostentatious fasting or self-denial; increased prayer, by attending to worship and various devotions; and the sacrificial giving of
alms (charitable donations)."
Other Christian viewpoints
It became "quite common" for members of the
Oxford Movement within the
Anglican Communion
The Anglican Communion is the third largest Christian communion after the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. Founded in 1867 in London, the communion has more than 85 million members within the Church of England and other ...
to practice self-flagellation using a
discipline.
Congregationalist writer and leader within the
evangelical Christian
Evangelicalism (), also called evangelical Christianity or evangelical Protestantism, is a worldwide interdenominational movement within Protestant Christianity that affirms the centrality of being " born again", in which an individual expe ...
movement,
Sarah Osborn
Sarah Osborn (February 22, 1714 – August 2, 1796) was an early American Protestant and Evangelical writer who experienced her own type of "religious awakening" during the birth of American Evangelicalism, and through her memoirs, served as a pre ...
, practiced self-flagellation in order "to remind her of her continued sin, depravity, and vileness in the eyes of God".
According to other evangelical Christian commentators, using Paul's writings and other passages from the New Testament to justify the practise of mortification of the flesh is a complete misinterpretation. In the verses leading up to Colossians 1:24, Paul holds a very high view of Christ's redeeming work.
This suffering Paul refers to comes as one takes on the commission to share the gospel. Persecution and suffering such as that experienced by Christ will follow and Christians should see this suffering as a divine necessity. In chapter 9, "Paul compares the evangelistic lifestyle of believers to athletes who sacrifice normal pursuits for the sake of strict training and a competitive edge". In the Corinth church there were grey areas of lifestyle and behaviors not specifically covered by the Mosaic law, and Paul was encouraging them to discipline themselves to abstain from those behaviors and practices for the sake of winning others to Christ.
Analogous non-Christian concepts
Indigenous practices and shamanism
Some indigenous cultures' shamans believe that endurance of pain or denial of appetites serves to increase spiritual power. In many indigenous cultures, painful rites are used to mark sexual maturity, marriage, procreation, or other major life stages. In Africa and Australia, indigenous people sometimes use genital mutilation on boys and girls that is intentionally painful, including
circumcision
Circumcision is a procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis. In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin is extended with forceps, then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin is excised. Top ...
,
subincision
Penile subincision is a form of genital modification or mutilation
The terms genital modification and genital mutilation can refer to permanent or temporary changes to human sex organs. Some forms of genital alteration are performed on adults w ...
,
clitoridectomy
Clitoridectomy or clitorectomy is the surgical removal, reduction, or partial removal of the clitoris. It is rarely used as a therapeutic medical procedure, such as when cancer has developed in or spread to the clitoris. It is often performed on i ...
,
piercing
Body piercing, which is a form of body modification, is the practice of puncturing or cutting a part of the human body, creating an opening in which jewelry
Jewellery ( UK) or jewelry ( U.S.) consists of decorative items worn for personal ...
, or
infibulation
Infibulation is the ritual removal of the external female genitalia and the suturing of the vulva, a practice found mainly in northeastern Africa, particularly in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan. The World Health Organization refer ...
. In some
Native American tribes enduring
scarification
Scarification involves scratching, etching, burning/branding, or superficially cutting designs, pictures, or words into the skin as a permanent body modification or body art. The body modification can take roughly 6–12 months to heal. In the ...
or the bites of ants are common rituals to mark a boy's transition to adulthood. Human rights organizations in several areas of the world have protested some of these methods, which can be forced upon the participants, although some are voluntary and are a source of pride and status.
Shamans often use painful rites and self-denial such as fasting or celibacy to attain transformation, or to commune with spirits.
Secular practices
It has been speculated that extreme practices of mortification of the flesh may be used to obtain an
altered state of consciousness
An altered state of consciousness (ASC), also called altered state of mind or mind alteration, is any condition which is significantly different from a normal waking state. By 1892, the expression was in use in relation to hypnosis, though there ...
to achieve spiritual experiences or
vision
Vision, Visions, or The Vision may refer to:
Perception Optical perception
* Visual perception, the sense of sight
* Visual system, the physical mechanism of eyesight
* Computer vision, a field dealing with how computers can be made to gain und ...
s. In modern times, members of the
Church of Body Modification
The Church of Body Modification is a non-theistic religion with approximately 3,500 members in the United States. The church practices body modification in order to "strengthen the bond between mind, body, and soul" and to experience the divine. ...
believe that by manipulating and modifying their bodies (by painful processes) they can strengthen the bond between their bodies and spirits, and become more spiritually aware. This group uses rites of passage from many traditions including
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
,
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...
and
shamanism, to seek their aims.
In some contexts, modern practices of body modification and plastic surgery overlap with mortification. Often, secular people will undergo painful experiences in order to become more self-aware, to take control of their bodies or "own" them more fully, to bond with a group that is spiritual in its aims, or to overcome the body's limitations in ways that do not refer to any higher power. Many times these rites are intended to empower the participant, rather than humble them. This represents a very different aim than many traditional mortifications.
Roland Loomis
Roland Loomis (August 10, 1930 – August 1, 2018), known professionally as Fakir Musafar, was an American performance artist considered to be one of the founders of the modern primitive movement.
Life
Born Roland Loomis, at age four he claim ...
re-creates
Sun dance
The Sun Dance is a ceremony practiced by some Native Americans in the United States and Indigenous peoples in Canada, primarily those of the Plains cultures. It usually involves the community gathering together to pray for healing. Individua ...
ceremonies and
suspensions for those who believe these painful procedures expand their consciousness.
Fakir Musafar
Roland Loomis (August 10, 1930 – August 1, 2018), known professionally as Fakir Musafar, was an American performance artist considered to be one of the founders of the modern primitive movement.
Life
Born Roland Loomis, at age four he claim ...
explained his use of these rites as a way to awaken the spirit to the body's limits, and put it in control of them. Others who have used these experiences to transcend physical limitations report a feeling of mastery over their physical circumstance, along with a widened perspective.
[''Modern Primitives'', Vale and Juno, RE/Search press, 1989]
See also
*
Confession
A confession is a statement – made by a person or by a group of persons – acknowledging some personal fact that the person (or the group) would ostensibly prefer to keep hidden. The term presumes that the speaker is providing information th ...
*
Confraternities of the Cord
Confraternities of the Cord are pious associations of Christians, the members of which wear a cord, girdle or cincture in honour of a saint whom they wish to honour and emulate.
Background
In the early Church virgins wore a cincture as a sign a ...
*
Day of Ashura
A day is the time period of a full rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun. On average, this is 24 hours, 1440 minutes, or 86,400 seconds. In everyday life, the word "day" often refers to a solar day, which is the length between two s ...
*
Flagellants
*
Guardia Sanframondi
Guardia Sanframondi is a town and ''comune'' in the Province of Benevento, in Campania region, in Italy. It is best known for its wine production, the wine festival ''Vinalia'' and for its Christian penitential rite held every seven years.
Geogr ...
*
Kavadi Aattam
Kavadi Aattam ( Tamil: காவடி ஆட்டம், Malayalam: കാവടിയാട്ടം) ("Burden Dance") is a ceremonial sacrifice and offering practiced by devotees during the worship of Murugan,Kent, Alexandra. ''Divinity and ...
*
Observance of Muharram
*
Purity ring
Purity rings (also known as promise rings, abstinence rings, or chastity rings) are rings worn as a sign of chastity. Since the 1990s, in the United States, Christian organizations, especially Catholic and evangelical Christian groups, promoting ...
*
Stylite
References
External links
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mortification Of The Flesh
Asceticism
Catholic penitential practices
Christian terminology