Monogeneans are a group of ectoparasitic
flatworms commonly found on the skin,
gills
A gill () is a respiratory organ that many aquatic organisms use to extract dissolved oxygen from water and to excrete carbon dioxide. The gills of some species, such as hermit crabs, have adapted to allow respiration on land provided they are ...
, or fins of fish. They have a direct lifecycle and do not require an intermediate host. Adults are hermaphrodites, meaning they have both male and female reproductive structures.
[L.A. Tubbsa et al. (2005). "Effects of temperature on fecundity in vitro, egg hatching and reproductive development of ''Benedenia seriolae'' and ''Zeuxapta seriolae'' (Monogenea) parasitic on yellowtail kingfish Seriola lalandi". ''International Journal for Parasitology''(35), 315–327.]
Some monogeneans are
oviparous (egg-laying) and some are
viviparous
Among animals, viviparity is development of the embryo inside the body of the parent. This is opposed to oviparity which is a reproductive mode in which females lay developing eggs that complete their development and hatch externally from the ...
(live-bearing). Oviparous varieties release eggs into the water. Viviparous varieties release larvae, which immediately attach to another host. The genus ''Gyrodactylus'' is an example of a viviparous variety, while the genus ''Dactylogyrus'' is an example of an oviparous variety.
Signs and symptoms
![Dobbeltdyr](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Dobbeltdyr.gif)
Freshwater fish that become infected with this parasite become lethargic and end up swimming towards the surface of the water. In addition, some may be seen rubbing the bottom or sides of their skin where the parasite is located. Infected skin where the parasite is attached may show areas of scale loss and may produce a pinkish fluid. Gills that are infected may appear swollen and pale. "Pipping", which is gulping for air at the water surface, could indicate severe respiratory distress.
[Reed, Peggy et al. Monogenean Parasites of Fish. ''Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences''. . http://www.aces.edu/dept/fisheries/education/ras/publications/Update/Monogenean%20Parasites%20of%20Fish.pdf
]
In salt water fish, Monogeneans can infect the skin and gills, resulting in irritations to the host. Heavy infections could result in erratic swimming behavior. Affected gills may become irritated and swollen.
Characteristics
Monogenea are small parasitic flatworms mainly found on skin or gills of fish.
They are rarely longer than about 2 cm. A few species infecting certain marine fish are larger, and marine forms are generally larger than those found on freshwater hosts. Monogenea are often capable of dramatically elongating and shortening as they move. Biologists need to ensure that specimens are completely relaxed before measurements are taken.
Monogeneans lack respiratory, skeletal, and circulatory systems and have no or weakly developed oral suckers. Like other flatworms, Monogenea have no true
body cavity
A body cavity is any space or compartment, or potential space, in an animal body. Cavities accommodate organs and other structures; cavities as potential spaces contain fluid.
The two largest human body cavities are the ventral body cavity, and ...
(coelom). They have a simple digestive system consisting of a mouth opening with a muscular
pharynx
The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the oesophagus and trachea (the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates, though its st ...
and an intestine with no terminal opening (
anus).
Monogenea are Platyhelminthes, so are among the lowest invertebrates to possess three embryonic germ layers—
endoderm,
mesoderm, and
ectoderm. In addition, they have a head region that contains concentrated sense organs and nervous tissue (brain).
Like all ectoparasites, monogeneans have well-developed attachment structures. The anterior structures are collectively termed the prohaptor, while the posterior ones are collectively termed the opisthaptor, or simply
haptor
The haptor is the attachment organ of the monogeneans, a group of parasitic Platyhelminthes.
The haptor is sometimes called opisthaptor (from ''opistho-'': behind) to emphasize that it is located in the posterior part of the body, and to differe ...
. The posterior opisthaptor with its hooks, anchors, clamps etc. is typically the major attachment organ.
Generally, monogeneans also are
hermaphroditic
In reproductive biology, a hermaphrodite () is an organism that has both kinds of reproductive organs and can produce both gametes associated with male and female sexes.
Many taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrates) do not have s ...
with functional reproductive organs of both sexes occurring in one individual. Most species are oviparous, but a few are viviparous.
Phylogeny
The following cladogram depicts the
phylogenetic
In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups o ...
relationships of the different monogenean orders:
Systematics and evolution
The ancestors of Monogenea were probably free-living flatworms similar to modern
Turbellaria
The Turbellaria are one of the traditional sub-divisions of the phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms), and include all the sub-groups that are not exclusively parasitic. There are about 4,500 species, which range from to large freshwater forms mor ...
.
According to the more widely accepted view, "rhabdocoel turbellarians gave rise to monogeneans; these, in turn, gave rise to
digeneans
Digenea (Gr. ''Dis'' – double, ''Genos'' – race) is a class of trematodes in the Platyhelminthes phylum, consisting of parasitic flatworms (known as ''flukes'') with a syncytial tegument and, usually, two suckers, one ventral and one oral. ...
, from which the
cestodes
Cestoda is a class of parasitic worms in the flatworm phylum (Platyhelminthes). Most of the species—and the best-known—are those in the subclass Eucestoda; they are ribbon-like worms as adults, known as tapeworms. Their bodies consist of man ...
were derived. Another view is that the rhabdocoel ancestor gave rise to two lines; one gave rise to monogeneans, which gave rise to digeneans, and the other line gave rise to cestodes".
About 50
families
Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Ideal ...
and thousands of species are described.
Some parasitologists divide the Monogenea into two (or three) subclasses based on the complexity of their haptor: the
Monopisthocotylea
The Monopisthocotylea are a subclass of parasitic flatworms in the class Monogenea. WoRMS (2019). Monopisthocotylea. Accessed at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=119219 on 2019-02-08
Yamaguti, S. (1963). Systema Helminthum V ...
have one main part to the haptor, often with hooks or a large attachment disc, whereas the
Polyopisthocotylea
Polyopisthocotylea is a subclass of parasitic flatworms in the class Monogenea.
WoRMS (2019). Polyopisthocotylea. Accessed at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=119220 on 2019-02-08Yamaguti, S. (1963). Systema Helminthum Volum ...
have multiple parts to the haptor, typically clamps. These groups are also known as Polyonchoinea and Heteronchoinea, respectively. Polyopisthocotyleans are almost exclusively gill-dwelling blood feeders, whereas monopisthocotyleans may live on the gills, skin, and fins.
Monopisthocotylea
The Monopisthocotylea are a subclass of parasitic flatworms in the class Monogenea. WoRMS (2019). Monopisthocotylea. Accessed at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=119219 on 2019-02-08
Yamaguti, S. (1963). Systema Helminthum V ...
include:
*Genus ''
Gyrodactylus
''Gyrodactylus'' is a genus of parasitic flatworms in the family Gyrodactylidae.
Species
Species listed in the World Register of Marine Species
The World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) is a taxonomic database that aims to provide an autho ...
'' has no eyespots and is viviparous.
*Genus ''
Dactylogyrus'' has four
eyespots and is oviparous. This is one of the largest metazoan genera, with at least 970 species.
*Genus ''
Neobenedenia
''Neobenedenia'' is a genus of monopisthocotylean monogenean flatworm parasites.
The most common species, ''Neobenedenia melleni'', causes problematic disease in public aquariums. It was named after ichthyologist Ida May Mellen (1877–1970) ...
'' much larger and lives on the skin of many tropical marine species, causing problematic infections in marine aquaria.
All of these can cause
epizootic
In epizoology, an epizootic (from Greek: ''epi-'' upon + ''zoon'' animal) is a disease event in a nonhuman animal population analogous to an epidemic in humans. An epizootic may be restricted to a specific locale (an "outbreak"), general (an "epi ...
s in
freshwater fish
Freshwater fish are those that spend some or all of their lives in fresh water, such as rivers and lakes, with a salinity of less than 1.05%. These environments differ from marine conditions in many ways, especially the difference in levels of ...
when raised in
aquaculture.
Polyopisthocotylea
Polyopisthocotylea is a subclass of parasitic flatworms in the class Monogenea.
WoRMS (2019). Polyopisthocotylea. Accessed at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=119220 on 2019-02-08Yamaguti, S. (1963). Systema Helminthum Volum ...
include:
*Genus ''
Diclidophora'' is primarily found in
marine fish
Saltwater fish, also called marine fish or sea fish, are fish that live in seawater. Saltwater fish can swim and live alone or in a large group called a school.
Saltwater fish are very commonly kept in aquariums for entertainment. Many saltwater f ...
and primitive freshwater fish such as
sturgeons and
paddlefish
Paddlefish (family Polyodontidae) are a family of ray-finned fish belonging to order Acipenseriformes, and one of two living groups of the order alongside sturgeons (Acipenseridae). They are distinguished from other fish by their titular elongla ...
.
*Genus ''
Protopolystoma'' is found in aquatic clawed toads (''
Xenopus
''Xenopus'' () (Gk., ξενος, ''xenos''=strange, πους, ''pous''=foot, commonly known as the clawed frog) is a genus of highly aquatic frogs native to sub-Saharan Africa. Twenty species are currently described within it. The two best-know ...
'' species).
Ecology and lifecycle
Monogeneans possess the simplest lifecycle among the parasitic platyhelminths. They have no intermediate hosts and are ectoparasitic on fish (seldom in the
urinary bladder
The urinary bladder, or simply bladder, is a hollow organ in humans and other vertebrates that stores urine from the kidneys before disposal by urination. In humans the bladder is a distensible organ that sits on the pelvic floor. Urine ente ...
and
rectum of
cold-blooded vertebrates
Vertebrates () comprise all animal taxa within the subphylum Vertebrata () (chordates with backbones), including all mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata, with c ...
). Although they are
hermaphrodites, the male reproductive system becomes functional before the female part. The eggs hatch releasing a heavily ciliated larval stage known as an
oncomiracidium
An oncomiracidium is the ciliated and free-living larva of a monogenean, a type of parasitic flatworm commonly found on fish. It is similar to the miracidium of Trematoda, but has sclerotised
Sclerotin is a component of the cuticle of various A ...
. The oncomiracidium has numerous posterior hooks and is generally the life stage responsible for transmission from host to host.
No known monogeneans infect
birds, but one (''
Oculotrema hippopotami'') infects
mammals
Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur o ...
, parasitizing the eye of the
hippopotamus
The hippopotamus ( ; : hippopotamuses or hippopotami; ''Hippopotamus amphibius''), also called the hippo, common hippopotamus, or river hippopotamus, is a large semiaquatic mammal native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is one of only two extan ...
.
See also
References
External links
Monogenea – ectoparasitic flukes (flatworms)- Clinical Sciences
{{Taxonbar, from=Q575927
Protostome classes