The Molossidae, or free-tailed bats, are a family of

bat Bats are mammals of the order Chiroptera.''cheir'', "hand" and πτερόν''pteron'', "wing". With their forelimbs adapted as wings, they are the only mammals capable of true and sustained flight. Bats are more agile in flight than most ...

s within the order Chiroptera. The Molossidae is the fourth-largest family of bats, containing about 110 species as of 2012. They are generally quite robust, and consist of many strong-flying forms with relatively long and narrow wings with wrinkled lips shared through their genus. Their strong flying form allows them to fly 60 miles per hour using tail winds and at altitudes over 10,000 feet. This makes them unique among bats, as they are the only bat family that withstands the elevation. They are widespread, being found on every continent except Antarctica. They are typically found in caves, abandoned mines, or tunnels.

Common ancestry

The family's scientific name comes from the

type genus In biological taxonomy, the type genus is the genus which defines a biological family and the root of the family name. Zoological nomenclature According to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, "The name-bearing type of a nominal f ...

'' Molossus'', which in turn is from the Molossus breed of dogs. The family's common name is derived from a length of "free" tail, projecting beyond the end of the

uropatagium The patagium (plural: patagia) is a membranous body part that assists an animal in obtaining lift when gliding or flight. The structure is found in extant and extinct groups of flying and gliding animals including bats, birds, some dromaeosau ...

—the membrane that connects the base of the tail to the hind legs. Another common name for some members of this group, and indeed a few species from other families, is mastiff bat. The

western mastiff bat The western mastiff bat (''Eumops perotis''), also known as the western bonneted bat, the greater mastiff bat, or the greater bonneted bat, is a member of the free-tailed bat family, Molossidae. It is found in the Western United States, Mexico a ...

(''Eumops perotis''), a large species from the

southwestern United States The Southwestern United States, also known as the American Southwest or simply the Southwest, is a geographic and cultural region of the United States that generally includes Arizona, New Mexico, and adjacent portions of California, Colorado, Ne ...

and

Mexico Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...

with wings over across, is perhaps one of the best known with this name. They are widespread, being found on every continent except Antarctica.

Anatomy

The tail is usually best seen when resting. A special ring of

cartilage Cartilage is a resilient and smooth type of connective tissue. In tetrapods, it covers and protects the ends of long bones at the joints as articular cartilage, and is a structural component of many body parts including the rib cage, the neck an ...

slides up or down the tail

vertebra The spinal column, a defining synapomorphy shared by nearly all vertebrates, Hagfish are believed to have secondarily lost their spinal column is a moderately flexible series of vertebrae (singular vertebra), each constituting a characteristi ...

e by muscular action to stretch or retract the tail membrane. This gives many species a degree of fine tuning in their flight maneuvers to rival their day-flying ecological equivalents, such as

swift Swift or SWIFT most commonly refers to: * SWIFT, an international organization facilitating transactions between banks ** SWIFT code * Swift (programming language) * Swift (bird), a family of birds It may also refer to: Organizations * SWIFT, ...

swallow The swallows, martins, and saw-wings, or Hirundinidae, are a family of passerine songbirds found around the world on all continents, including occasionally in Antarctica. Highly adapted to aerial feeding, they have a distinctive appearance. The ...

s, and martins. As a result, these animals include the fastest-flying of all bat species among their number. The

dental formula Dentition pertains to the development of teeth and their arrangement in the mouth. In particular, it is the characteristic arrangement, kind, and number of teeth in a given species at a given age. That is, the number, type, and morpho-physiolo ...

of free-tailed bats varies between species: Free-tailed bats are usually grey, brown, or black in color, with some exceptions. They range from in length, excluding the tail, and can weigh from , depending on species. They are insectivorous, and catch their food on the wing. While some species roost in small groups in hollow trees or rocky crevices, some cave-dwelling species form vast colonies of up to 50 million individuals. Molecular sequence data support the

monophyly In cladistics for a group of organisms, monophyly is the condition of being a clade—that is, a group of taxa composed only of a common ancestor (or more precisely an ancestral population) and all of its lineal descendants. Monophyletic grou ...

of the Molossidae as a whole, but not that of many of its genera, such as ''

Chaerephon Chaerephon (; grc-gre, Χαιρεφῶν, ''Chairephōn''; c. 470/460 – 403/399 BCE), of the Athenian deme Sphettus, was an ancient Greek best remembered as a loyal friend and follower of Socrates. He is known only through brief descriptions ...

'', ''

Mops MOPS (3-(''N''-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid) is a buffer introduced in the 1960s, one of the twenty Good's buffers. It is a structural analog to MES, and like MES, its structure contains a morpholine ring. HEPES is a similar pH buffering ...

'', '' Mormopterus'', and ''

Tadarida The genus ''Tadarida'' has 9 or more species of free-tailed bats divided into two subgenera, with the first of these containing seven species spread across the Old World (including southern Europe and North Africa, large parts of southern Asia, ...

''. The grouping of ''Chaerephon'' minus '' C. jobimena'' plus ''Mops'' was found to be monophyletic, as was ''

Otomops ''Otomops'' is a genus of bat Bats are mammals of the order Chiroptera.''cheir'', "hand" and πτερόν''pteron'', "wing". With their forelimbs adapted as wings, they are the only mammals capable of true and sustained flight. Bats a ...

''.

Systematics

A 2012 study attempted to show the relationships of genera within the subfamily Molossinae (the other subfamily of Molossidae, Tomopeatinae, only contains the

blunt-eared bat The blunt-eared bat or Peruvian crevice-dwelling bat (''Tomopeas ravus'') is a species of bat in the family Molossidae. It is monotypic within the genus ''Tomopeas'' and subfamily Tomopeatinae. It is endemic to Peru, where it is considered criti ...

). This study used genetic data to create a

phylogeny A phylogenetic tree (also phylogeny or evolutionary tree Felsenstein J. (2004). ''Inferring Phylogenies'' Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, MA.) is a branching diagram or a tree showing the evolutionary relationships among various biological spec ...

, which contrasted from previous phylogenies constructed using morphological data. Traits that were previously used to group species, such as having a flat skull, were shown to have no relation to evolutionary relationship, meaning that flat-headedness evolved multiple times within the family. Of the 16 genera of Molossinae, 15 were used to create the phylogeny (left), with researchers unable to include Peters's flat-headed bat, the only member of '' Platymops''. The results of this study showed that ''

'' is

paraphyletic In taxonomy (general), taxonomy, a group is paraphyletic if it consists of the group's most recent common ancestor, last common ancestor and most of its descendants, excluding a few Monophyly, monophyletic subgroups. The group is said to be pa ...

, forming a

clade A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English term, ...

with ''

''. There was strong support for

Old World The "Old World" is a term for Afro-Eurasia that originated in Europe , after Europeans became aware of the existence of the Americas. It is used to contrast the continents of Africa, Europe, and Asia, which were previously thought of by the ...

and

New World The term ''New World'' is often used to mean the majority of Earth's Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 3 ...

clades. While the genus ''

'' has one New World species, the

Mexican free-tailed bat The Mexican free-tailed bat or Brazilian free-tailed bat (''Tadarida brasiliensis'') is a medium-sized bat native to the Americas, so named because its tail can be almost half its total length and is not attached to its uropatagium. It has been ...

, the genus itself has its origins in the Old World. The most recent common ancestor of ''Tadarida'' with New World genera was 29 million years ago. Several

tribes The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide usage of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. This definition is contested, in part due to conflic ...

have been proposed within the Molossinae. Ammerman ''et al.'' proposed Molossini (containing ''Molossus'', ''Eumops'', ''Molossops'', ''Cynomops'', ''Neoplatymops'', ''Nyctinomops'', and ''Promops''); Tadarini (containing ''Tadarida'', ''Chaerephon'', ''Mops'', ''Platymops'', ''Sauromys'', ''Myopterus'', and ''Otomops''); Cheiromelini (containing ''Cheiromeles''); and Mormopterini (containing ''Mormopterus'')

Classification

The 18 genera contain about 100 species: FAMILY MOLOSSIDAE * Genus †'' Cuvierimops'' * Genus †'' Nyctinomus'' * Genus †'' Potamops'' * Genus †'' Rhizomops'' * Genus †''

Wallia Wallia or Walha ( Spanish: ''Walia'', Portuguese ''Vália''), ( 385 – 418) was king of the Visigoths from 415 to 418, earning a reputation as a great warrior and prudent ruler. He was elected to the throne after Athaulf and then Sigeric were ...

''''Wallia''
at

Fossilworks Fossilworks is a portal which provides query, download, and analysis tools to facilitate access to the Paleobiology Database The Paleobiology Database is an online resource for information on the distribution and classification of fossil animals ...

.org * Subfamily Molossinae ** Genus ''

'' – lesser mastiff bats *** Duke of Abruzzi's free-tailed bat, ''Chaerephon aloysiisabaudiae'' *** Ansorge's free-tailed bat, ''Chaerephon ansorgei'' *** Gland-tailed free-tailed bat, ''Chaerephon bemmeleni'' ***

Spotted free-tailed bat The spotted free-tailed bat (''Chaerephon bivittatus'') is a species of bat in the family Molossidae. It is found in Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Its nat ...

, ''Chaerephon bivittata'' *** Fijian mastiff bat, ''Chaerephon bregullae'' ***

Chapin's free-tailed bat Chapin's free-tailed bat (''Mops chapini'') is a species of bat in the family Molossidae. It is found in central and southern Africa. Description Chapin's free-tailed bat is a relatively small species, measuring in length, including a tail, and ...

, ''Chaerephon chapini'' *** Gallagher's free-tailed bat, ''Chaerephon gallagheri'' *** Northern freetail bat, ''Chaerephon jobensis'' ***

Black and red free-tailed bat ''Mops jobimena'', commonly known as the black and red free-tailed bat, is a species of bat in the family Molossidae. It is endemic to western Madagascar. With a forearm length of 45 to 48 mm (1.8 to 1.9 in), Habitat The known habitats of ...

, ''Chaerephon jobimena'' *** Northern free-tailed bat, ''Chaerephon johorensis'' *** Grandidier's free-tailed bat, ''Chaerephon leucogaster'' *** Lappet-eared free-tailed bat, ''Chaerephon major'' *** Nigerian free-tailed bat, ''Chaerephon nigeriae'' ***

Wrinkle-lipped free-tailed bat The wrinkle-lipped free-tailed bat (''Chaerephon plicatus'') is a species of bat in the family Molossidae. It is found in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, the Philip ...

, ''Chaerephon plicata'' ***

Little free-tailed bat The little free-tailed bat (''Chaerephon pumilus'') is a species of the genus ''Chaerephon'' in the family Molossidae. It is widely distributed across Africa and islands around the continent. Description The little free-tailed bat is one of t ...

, ''Chaerephon pumilus'' *** Russet free-tailed bat, ''Chaerephon russata'' *** Solomons mastiff bat, ''Chaerephon solomonis'' *** São Tomé free-tailed bat, ''Chaerephon tomensis'' ** Genus '' Cheiromeles'' – naked bats, or hairless bats *** Greater naked bat, ''Cheiromeles torquatus'' *** Lesser naked bat, ''Cheiromeles parvidens'' ** Genus ''

Cynomops ''Cynomops'' is a genus of Central and South American dog-faced bats in the family Molossidae. It has sometimes been considered a subgenus of '' Molossops''. It contains the following species: * Cinnamon dog-faced bat (''C. abrasus'') * Free ...

'' *** Cinnamon dog-faced bat, ''Cynomops abrasus'' *** Freeman's dog-faced bat, ''Cynomops freemani'' *** Greenhall's dog-faced bat, ''Cynomops greenhalli'' *** Mexican dog-faced bat, ''Cynomops mexicanus'' *** Para dog-faced bat, ''Cynomops paranus'' ***

Southern dog-faced bat The southern dog-faced bat (''Cynomops planirostris''), is a bat species of the family Molossidae. It is found in northern Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Panama, Peru, Paraguay, Suriname and Venezuela Vene ...

, ''Cynomops planirostris'' ** Genus ''

Eumops ''Eumops'' (mastiff bats or bonneted bats) is a genus of bat Bats are mammals of the order Chiroptera.''cheir'', "hand" and πτερόν''pteron'', "wing". With their forelimbs adapted as wings, they are the only mammals capable of true ...

'' – mastiff bats, or bonneted bats ***

Black bonneted bat The black bonneted bat, also known as Shaw's mastiff bat, (''Eumops auripendulus''), is a species of bat from the Americas. Description The black-bonneted bat is a medium-sized bat, with adults weighing between . The head and back are covered in ...

, ''Eumops auripendulus'' *** Dwarf bonneted bat, ''Eumops bonariensis'' *** Big bonneted bat, ''Eumops dabbenei'' *** Fierce bonneted bat, '' Eumops ferox'' *** Florida bonneted bat, ''Eumops floridanus'' *** Wagner's bonneted bat, ''Eumops glaucinus'' ***

Sanborn's bonneted bat Sanborn's bonneted bat (''Eumops hansae''), is a bat species from South and Central America. It was first described from a specimen collected at Colonia Hansa, Brazil, and is sometimes also known as the Hansa bonneted bat. Description Sanborn's ...

, ''Eumops hansae'' *** Guianan bonneted bat, ''Eumops maurus'' *** Patagonian bonneted bat, ''Eumops patagonicus'' ***

Western mastiff bat The western mastiff bat (''Eumops perotis''), also known as the western bonneted bat, the greater mastiff bat, or the greater bonneted bat, is a member of the free-tailed bat family, Molossidae. It is found in the Western United States, Mexico a ...

, ''Eumops perotis'' *** Colombian bonneted bat, ''Eumops trumbulli'' *** Underwood's bonneted bat, ''Eumops underwoodi'' *** Wilson's bonneted bat'', Eumops wilsoni'' ** Genus '' Mormopterus'' *** Subgenus '' Mormopterus'' **** Natal free-tailed bat, ''Mormopterus acetabulosus'' **** Moutou's free-tailed bat, '' Mormopterus francoismoutoui'' **** Sumatran mastiff bat, ''Mormopterus doriae'' **** Peters's wrinkle-lipped bat, ''Mormopterus jugularis'' **** Kalinowski's mastiff bat, ''Mormopterus kalinowskii'' **** Little goblin bat, ''Mormopterus minutus'' **** Incan little mastiff bat, ''Mormopterus phrudus'' *** Subgenus '' Micronomus'' **** Beccari's mastiff bat, ''Mormopterus beccarii'' **** Bristle-faced free-tailed bat, ''Mormopterus eleryi'' **** Loria's mastiff bat, ''Mormopterus loriae'' **** East-coast free-tailed bat, ''Mormopterus norfolkensis'' **** Southern free-tailed bat, ''Mormopterus planiceps'' ** Genus '' Molossops'' – broad-faced bats ***

Equatorial dog-faced bat The equatorial dog-faced bat (''Cabreramops aequatorianus'') is a species of bat in the family Molossidae. It is endemic to Ecuador. They are found in dry, tropical forests. The species is now endangered. The equatorial dog-faced bat feeds on in ...

, ''Molossops (Cabreramops) aequatorianus'' *** Rufous dog-faced bat, ''Molossops neglectus'' *** Dwarf dog-faced bat, ''Molossops temminckii'' ** Genus '' Molossus'' – velvety free-tailed bats *** Alvarez's mastiff bat, '' Molossus alvarezi'' ***

Aztec mastiff bat The Aztec mastiff bat (''Molossus aztecus'') is a species of bat in the family Molossidae. It is insectivorous. Taxonomy and etymology It was described as a new species in 1860 by Swiss scientist Henri Saussure. Its species name "''aztecus'' ...

, ''Molossus aztecus'' *** Barnes' mastiff bat, ''Molossus barnesi'' *** Coiban mastiff bat, ''Molossus coibensis'' *** Bonda mastiff bat, ''Molossus currentium'' ***

Velvety free-tailed bat The velvety free-tailed bat or Pallas's mastiff bat (''Molossus molossus''), is a bat species in the family Molossidae. Description ''M. molossus'' is a medium-sized bat, with a length of and with a wingspan of . This species is brown in color ...

, ''Molossus molossus'' *** Miller's mastiff bat, ''Molossus pretiosus'' ***

Black mastiff bat The black mastiff bat (''Molossus rufus'') is a bat species. It ranges from the northern region of South America (excluding Chile), most of Central America (excluding Belize) and parts of southern Mexico. Taxonomy The black mastiff bat was speci ...

, ''Molossus rufus'' ***

Sinaloan mastiff bat The Sinaloan mastiff bat (''Molossus sinaloae'') is a species of bat in the family Molossidae, native to Mexico, Central America and northern South America. Description The Sinaloan mastiff bat is a moderately sized bat, measuring in length, ...

, ''Molossus sinaloae'' ** Genus ''

'' – greater mastiff bats *** Subgenus '' Xiphonycteris'' **** Spurrell's free-tailed bat, ''Mops spurrelli'' **** Dwarf free-tailed bat, ''Mops nanulus'' **** Peterson's free-tailed bat, ''Mops petersoni'' **** Sierra Leone free-tailed bat, ''Mops brachypterus'' **** Bakari's free-tailed bat, ''Mops bakarii'' **** Railer bat, ''Mops thersites'' *** Subgenus ''

'' **** Angolan free-tailed bat, ''Mops condylurus'' **** White-bellied free-tailed bat, ''Mops niveiventer'' **** Mongalla free-tailed bat, ''Mops demonstrator'' **** Malayan free-tailed bat, ''Mops mops'' **** Sulawesi free-tailed bat, ''Mops sarasinorum'' **** Trevor's free-tailed bat, ''Mops trevori'' **** Medje free-tailed bat, ''Mops congicus'' **** Midas free-tailed bat, ''Mops midas'' **** Niangara free-tailed bat, ''Mops niangarae'' **** Medje free-tailed bat, ''Mops congicus'' **** Malagasy white-bellied free-tailed bat, ''Mops leucostigma'' ** Genus '' Myopterus'' *** Daubenton's free-tailed bat, ''Myopterus daubentonii'' *** Bini free-tailed bat, ''Myopterus whitleyi'' ** Genus '' Nyctinomops'' – New World free-tailed bats ***

Peale's free-tailed bat Peale's free-tailed bat (''Nyctinomops aurispinosus'') is a bat species from South and Central America Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United State ...

, ''Nyctinomops aurispinosus'' *** Pocketed free-tailed bat, ''Nyctinomops femorosaccus'' ***

Broad-eared bat The broad-eared bat or broad-tailed bat (''Nyctinomops laticaudatus'') is a species of free-tailed bat from the Americas. Description The broad-eared bat is a relatively small bat, measuring about in total length, and weighing on average. The ...

, ''Nyctinomops laticaudatus'' *** Big free-tailed bat, ''Nyctinomops macrotis'' ** Genus '' Neoplatymops'' ***

Mato Grosso dog-faced bat The Mato Grosso dog-faced bat (''Neoplatymops mattogrossensis''), is a bat species found in South America. It is the only species in the genus ''Neoplatymops''. Taxonomy and etymology It was described as a new species in 1942 by C. O. C. Viei ...

, ''Neoplatymops mattogrossensis'' ** Genus ''

'' – big-eared free-tailed bats ***

Javan mastiff bat The Javan mastiff bat (''Otomops formosus'') is a species of bat in the family Molossidae that is endemic to Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pa ...

, ''Otomops formosus'' ***

Johnstone's mastiff bat Johnstone's mastiff bat (''Otomops johnstonei'') is a species of bat in the Molossidae family endemic to Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific ...

, ''Otomops johnstonei'' ***

Madagascar free-tailed bat The Madagascar free-tailed bat or Malagasy giant mastiff bat (''Otomops madagascariensis'') is a species of free-tailed bat formerly included as a subspecies of the large-eared free-tailed bat, but that was later considered to be a distinct, Mal ...

, ''Otomops madagascariensis'' ***

Large-eared free-tailed bat The large-eared free-tailed bat (''Otomops martiensseni'') is a species of bat in the family Molossidae native to Africa. It is found in Angola, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ivory Coast, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Ghan ...

, ''Otomops martiensseni'' ***

Big-eared mastiff bat The big-eared mastiff bat (''Otomops papuensis'') is a species of bat in the Molossidae family endemic to Papua New Guinea. It is only known from eleven specimens and it is not easy to survey. It forages in rainforest canopy and roosts in tree h ...

, ''Otomops papuensis'' ***

Mantled mastiff bat The mantled mastiff bat (''Otomops secundus'') is a species of bat in the Molossidae family endemic to Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State ...

, ''Otomops secundus'' ***

Wroughton's free-tailed bat Wroughton's free-tailed bat (''Otomops wroughtoni'') is a free-tailed bat formerly considered to be confined to the Western Ghats area of India, though it has also recently been discovered in northeast India and in a remote part of Cambodia. I ...

, ''Otomops wroughtoni'' ** Genus '' Platymops'' *** Peters's flat-headed bat, ''Platymops setiger'' ** Genus ''

Promops ''Promops'' is a genus of free-tailed bats. Species * ''Promops centralis'' - big crested mastiff bat * ''Promops davisoni'' * ''Promops nasutus'' - brown mastiff bat References

Promops, Molossidae Bat genera Taxa named by Paul Gervai ...

'' – domed-palate mastiff bats *** Big crested mastiff bat, ''Promops centralis'' ***

Brown mastiff bat The brown mastiff bat (''Promops nasutus''), is a bat species found in Venezuela, Trinidad, Guyana, Suriname, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and northern Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link ...

, ''Promops nasutus'' ** Genus '' Sauromys'' *** Roberts's flat-headed bat, ''Sauromys petrophilus'' ** Genus ''

'' – free-tailed bats ***

Egyptian free-tailed bat The Egyptian free-tailed bat, also known as Egyptian guano bat or Egyptian nyctinome, (''Tadarida aegyptiaca'') is a species of bat in the family Molossidae. Description The Egyptian free-tailed bat has fine, dense fur which is greyish brown, s ...

, ''Tadarida aegyptiaca'' ***

, ''Tadarida brasiliensis'' *** Madagascan large free-tailed bat, ''Tadarida fulminans'' *** East Asian free-tailed bat, ''Tadarida insignis'' *** La Touche's free-tailed bat, ''Tadarida latouchei'' *** Kenyan big-eared free-tailed bat, ''Tadarida lobata'' ***

European free-tailed bat The European free-tailed bat (''Tadarida teniotis'', sometimes given as ''Tadarida insignis'') is a species of free-tailed bat found in the Old World. Other common names include the bulldog bat and the mastiff bat because of the presence of wrin ...

, ''Tadarida teniotis'' *** African giant free-tailed bat, ''Tadarida ventralis'' ** Genus '' Austronomus'' *** White-striped free-tailed bat, ''Austronomus australis'' *** New Guinea free-tailed bat, ''Austronomus kuboriensis'' * Subfamily Tomopeatinae ** Genus ''Tomopeas'' ***

Blunt-eared bat The blunt-eared bat or Peruvian crevice-dwelling bat (''Tomopeas ravus'') is a species of bat in the family Molossidae. It is monotypic within the genus ''Tomopeas'' and subfamily Tomopeatinae. It is endemic to Peru, where it is considered criti ...

, ''Tomopeas ravus''

Common ancestry

Anatomy

Systematics

Classification

References

Further reading