In the context of
Muslim
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
society in
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
, Modernism or modernist Islam refers to a religious movement which puts emphasis on teachings purely derived from the Islamic religious scriptures, the ''
Qur'an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , sing. ...
'' and ''
Hadith
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval ...
''. Modernism is often contrasted with
traditionalism
Traditionalism is the adherence to traditional beliefs or practices. It may also refer to:
Religion
* Traditional religion, a religion or belief associated with a particular ethnic group
* Traditionalism (19th-century Catholicism), a 19th–c ...
, which upholds ''
ulama
In Islam, the ''ulama'' (; ar, علماء ', singular ', "scholar", literally "the learned ones", also spelled ''ulema''; feminine: ''alimah'' ingularand ''aalimath'' lural are the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious ...
''-based and syncretic vernacular traditions. Modernism is inspired by reformism during the late-19th to early 20th century based in the
Middle East
The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabian Peninsula, Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Anatolia, Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Pro ...
, such as the
Islamic modernist
Islamic modernism is a movement that has been described as "the first Muslim ideological response to the Western cultural challenge" attempting to reconcile the Islamic faith with modern values such as democracy, civil rights, rationality, e ...
, ''
Salafiyya
The Salafi movement or Salafism () is a reform branch movement within Sunni Islam that originated during the nineteenth century. The name refers to advocacy of a return to the traditions of the "pious predecessors" (), the first three generati ...
'' and
Wahhabi
Wahhabism ( ar, ٱلْوَهَّابِيَةُ, translit=al-Wahhābiyyah) is a Sunni Islamic revivalist and fundamentalist movement associated with the reformist doctrines of the 18th-century Arabian Islamic scholar, theologian, preacher, an ...
movements. Throughout the
history of contemporary Muslim Indonesia, these movements have inspired various religious organizations; from the mass organization
Muhammadiyah
Muhammadiyah ( ar, محمدية; 'followers of Muhammad'); also known as the Muhammadiyah Society ( id, Persyarikatan Muhammadiyah) is a major Islamic non-governmental organization in Indonesia.A. Jalil HamidTackle the rising cost of living longer ...
(1912), political party
Masyumi Party
The Council of Indonesian Muslim Associations ( id, Partai Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia), better known as the Masyumi Party, was a major Islamic political party in Indonesia during the Liberal Democracy Era in Indonesia. It was banned in ...
(1943), to missionary organization
Indonesian Islamic Dawah Council (1967).
Usage of the term
The division between "traditionalism" and "modernism" is widely used by both Indonesians and foreign academics to describe the chasm which has been existed among the contemporary Muslim society in Indonesia.
[Bush, 2009.] Previously, Muslim society in
Java
Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's List ...
in particular was analyzed through the division of
abangan
The ''Abangan'' are Javanese people who are Muslims and practice a much more syncretic version of Islam than the more orthodox santri. The term, apparently derived from the Javanese language word for red, ''abang'', was first developed by Clif ...
,
santri
In Indonesia, ''santri'' is a term for someone who follows Islamic religious education in ''pesantren'' (Islamic boarding schools). Santri usually stay in the place until their education is complete. After completing their study period, some of ...
and
priyayi
''Priyayi'' (former spelling: ''Prijaji'') was the Dutch East Indies, Dutch-era class of the nobles of the robe, as opposed to royal nobility or ''ningrat'' (Javanese language, Javanese), in Java, Indonesia, the List of islands by population, wor ...
popularized by an anthropologist
Clifford Geertz
Clifford James Geertz (; August 23, 1926 – October 30, 2006) was an American anthropologist who is remembered mostly for his strong support for and influence on the practice of symbolic anthropology and who was considered "for three decades. ...
based on communal identity. However, this division has already been considered obsolete.
[Von Der Mehden, 1995.] Geertz's category of santri is considered referring to modernist Islam.
[Geertz, 1960.] Greg Barton of
Monash University
Monash University () is a public research university based in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Named for prominent World War I general Sir John Monash, it was founded in 1958 and is the second oldest university in the state. The university has a ...
states that since the 1950s and 1960s, Indonesian society could be reasonably described based on the traditionalist-modernist dualism.
Definition
Modernism/Reformism in the Indonesian context is defined by its pure adherence toward the ''Qur'an'' and ''Hadith'', promotion of ''
ijtihad
''Ijtihad'' ( ; ar, اجتهاد ', ; lit. physical or mental ''effort'') is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law, or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a le ...
'' (individual reasoning), rejection of ''
madh'hab
A ( ar, مذهب ', , "way to act". pl. مَذَاهِب , ) is a school of thought within ''fiqh'' (Islamic jurisprudence).
The major Sunni Mathhab are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali.
They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries CE a ...
'' (Islamic schools of jurisprudence) and as well as criticism against ''
taqlid
''Taqlid'' (Arabic تَقْليد ''taqlīd'') is an Islamic term denoting the conformity of one person to the teaching of another. The person who performs ''taqlid'' is termed ''muqallid''. The definite meaning of the term varies depending on co ...
'' (imitation of judicial precedence) to religious scholars,
Sufism
Sufism ( ar, ''aṣ-ṣūfiyya''), also known as Tasawwuf ( ''at-taṣawwuf''), is a mystic body of religious practice, found mainly within Sunni Islam but also within Shia Islam, which is characterized by a focus on Islamic spirituality, r ...
, and vernacular traditions based on syncretism with local practices. It is also often discussed in terms of its internal conflict between the tendency inspired by the
Enlightenment philosophy
The Age of Enlightenment or the Enlightenment; german: Aufklärung, "Enlightenment"; it, L'Illuminismo, "Enlightenment"; pl, Oświecenie, "Enlightenment"; pt, Iluminismo, "Enlightenment"; es, La Ilustración, "Enlightenment" was an intel ...
,
science
Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence for ...
and
rationality
Rationality is the quality of being guided by or based on reasons. In this regard, a person acts rationally if they have a good reason for what they do or a belief is rational if it is based on strong evidence. This quality can apply to an abil ...
, championed by
Muhammad Abduh
; "The Theology of Unity")
, alma_mater = Al-Azhar University
, office1 = Grand Mufti of Egypt
, term1 = 1899 – 1905
, Sufi_order = Shadhiliyya
, disciple_of =
, awards =
, infl ...
, and the one oriented toward scriptural literalism and unified regulation of formal ritual behavior promoted by
Rashid Rida
Muḥammad Rashīd ibn ʿAlī Riḍā ibn Muḥammad Shams al-Dīn ibn Muḥammad Bahāʾ al-Dīn ibn Munlā ʿAlī Khalīfa (23 September 1865 or 18 October 1865 – 22 August 1935 CE/ 1282 - 1354 AH), widely known as Sayyid Rashid Rida ( ar, ...
. The latter is considered closer to
Salafism
The Salafi movement or Salafism () is a Islah, reform branch movement within Sunni Islam that originated during the nineteenth century. The name refers to advocacy of a return to the traditions of the "pious predecessors" (), the first three g ...
.
[Feener, 2007.] According to Robin Bush of
RTI International
Research Triangle Institute, trading as RTI International, is a nonprofit organization headquartered in the Research Triangle Park in North Carolina. RTI provides research and technical services. It was founded in 1958 with $500,000 in funding f ...
, modernism initially encouraged ''ijtihad'' in order to widen the freedom of individual interpretation, but the rejection of religious sources outside of the scripture has led to the development of a rigid and legalistic tendency.
Neo-modernism
Since the 1980s and 1990s, attempts to bridge the gap between traditionalism and modernism were made, and progressive intellectuals of both sides have attained interpretational resemblance with common goals of
pluralism and interfaith
tolerance. These movements are called "neo-modernism" by scholars such as Fachry Ali, Bahtiar Effendy and Greg Barton. Neo-modernism was heavily inspired by the
Pakistani Muslim intellectual
Fazlur Rahman, and popularized by an intellectual stream called ''pembaruan'' (renewal). The most important neo-modernist or ''pembaruan'' thinkers including
Nurcholish Madjid
Nurcholish Madjid (March 17, 1939 – August 29, 2005), in Indonesia affectionately known as Cak Nur, was a prominent Indonesian Muslim intellectual. Early in his academic career, Nurcholish was a leader in various student organizations. He soon ...
,
Djohan Effendi and
Luthfi Assyaukanie
Luthfi Assyaukanie (August 27, 1967), is a cofounder of the Liberal Islam Network (Jaringan Islam Liberal, JIL) in Indonesia, a lecturer at Paramadina University, and a research associate at the Freedom Institute.
Biography
Born in Jakarta, Indone ...
. They have cooperated with the reform-minded traditionalists such as
Abdurrahman Wahid
Abdurrahman Wahid ( ; born Abdurrahman ad-Dakhil; 7 September 1940 – 30 December 2009), though more colloquially known as Gus Dur (), was an Indonesian politician and Islamic religious leader who served as the 4th president of Indonesia, from ...
of
Nahdlatul Ulama
Nahdlatul Ulama (, , NU) is an Islam in Indonesia, Islamic organization in Indonesia. Its membership estimates range from 40 million (2013) to over 95 million (2021), making it the largest Islamic organization in the world. NU also is a charitab ...
, holding strong influence during the late 1990s to early 2000s.
[Hefner, 2000.]
History
Islam in Indonesia was spread by Arab traders and Sufi saints after the 16th century. It had legitimated the authority of the ulama and taqlid as a learning system, and prompted incorporation of vernacular
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
or
animist
Animism (from Latin: ' meaning 'breath, Soul, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct Spirituality, spiritual essence. Potentially, animism perceives all things—Animal, animals, Plant, plants, Ro ...
practices into the Islamic tradition.
Since the 18th century, the Islamic world was facing European
colonization
Colonization, or colonisation, constitutes large-scale population movements wherein migrants maintain strong links with their, or their ancestors', former country – by such links, gain advantage over other inhabitants of the territory. When ...
worldwide and philosophical crisis. Islamic modernism was articulated by philosophers such as
Jamal ad-din Al Afghani, Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida to revive the Islamic civilization. They criticized the ulama's authority and taqlid as blind imitation, as well as Sufism for deviation and blamed them for the demise of Islamic teaching and civilization.
With the increase of Indonesian students studying the Middle East, especially
Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metro ...
, Indonesian Muslim such as
Abdullah Ahmad
Tan Sri Abdullah bin Ahmad (4 July 1937 – 12 June 2016) was a Malaysian journalist and politician from the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO). Alumni of Sultan Ismail College, Kota Bharu, Kelantan and at one time, he was the editor-in- ...
,
Ahmad Dahlan, Ahmad Hassan, and Moenawar Chalil had brought Islamic modernism into the Indonesian archipelago. In
West Sumatra
West Sumatra ( id, Sumatra Barat) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is located on the west coast of the island of Sumatra and includes the Mentawai Islands off that coast. The province has an area of , with a population of 5, ...
, a reformist youths who called themselves ''kaum muda'' ("young generation") held strong influence. Ahmad founded an Islamic magazine ''
Al-Munir'' in
Padang
Padang () is the capital and largest city of the Indonesian province of West Sumatra. With a Census population of 1,015,000 as of 2022, it is the 16th most populous city in Indonesia and the most populous city on the west coast of Sumatra. Th ...
, inspired by ''
Al-Manar
Al-Manar ( ar, المنار, ''al-Manār'', lit='' The Lighthouse'') is a Lebanese satellite television station owned and operated by the political party Hezbollah, '' published by Rida. In 1912, Dahlan established a socio-religious organization
Muhammadiyah
Muhammadiyah ( ar, محمدية; 'followers of Muhammad'); also known as the Muhammadiyah Society ( id, Persyarikatan Muhammadiyah) is a major Islamic non-governmental organization in Indonesia.A. Jalil HamidTackle the rising cost of living longer ...
, the first religious mass organization in Indonesia. Hassan and Chalil both became prominent members of a modernist organization
PERSIS
Persis ( grc-gre, , ''Persís''), better known in English as Persia ( Old Persian: 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿, ''Parsa''; fa, پارس, ''Pârs''), or Persia proper, is the Fars region, located to the southwest of modern-day Iran, now a province. T ...
, established in 1923. Other modernist organizations including
Al-Irshad Al-Islamiya in
Jakarta
Jakarta (; , bew, Jakarte), officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta ( id, Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta) is the capital and largest city of Indonesia. Lying on the northwest coast of Java, the world's most populous island, Jakarta ...
(1914) and
Sumatera Thawalib Sumatera Thawalib was one of the earliest Islamic mass organizations in Indonesia, based in West Sumatra. Sumatera Thawalib represented the modernist school of Islam in Indonesia, an Islamic reform with heavy emphasis on the Qur'an, hadith, a moder ...
in West Sumatra (1915).
Modernists were also active on the political arena, establishing
Union of Indonesian Muslims Persatuan Muslim Indonesia (lit: Union of Indonesian Muslims, or Indonesian Muslim Union), also abbreviated as PERMI, was a political party espoused Islamic-nationalism based in Padang Panjang, founded in 1930. The party was dissolved due to the cra ...
(PERMI) in 1930, Masyumi Party in 1943, and
Muslim Students' Association
The Muslim Students Association, or Muslim Student Union, of the U.S. and Canada, also known as MSA National, is a religious organization dedicated to establishing and maintaining Islamic societies on college campuses in Canada and the United Sta ...
(HMI) in 1947. The leader of the Masyumi Party,
Mohammad Natsir
Mohammad Natsir (17 July 19086 February 1993) was an Islamic scholar and politician. He was Indonesia's fifth List of Prime Ministers of Indonesia, prime minister.
After moving to Bandung from his hometown Solok, West Sumatra for senior high sch ...
, became the most prominent proponent of modernism throughout the
Sukarno
Sukarno). (; born Koesno Sosrodihardjo, ; 6 June 1901 – 21 June 1970) was an Indonesian statesman, orator, revolutionary, and nationalist who was the first president of Indonesia, serving from 1945 to 1967.
Sukarno was the leader of ...
and
New Order era. Through Masyumi Party, Natsir campaigned for implementing
sharia
Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the H ...
on the state level. Following the banning by the
Suharto
Suharto (; ; 8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesian army officer and politician, who served as the second and the longest serving president of Indonesia. Widely regarded as a military dictator by international observers, Suharto ...
regime, Natsir went underground and founded Indonesian Islamic Dawah Council (DDII) in 1967. DDII built strong relations with the Middle Eastern Muslim scholars of Salafi and Wahhabi brands and played a huge role in importing these doctrines to Indonesia. During the New Order era, HMI built strong relations with the ruling
Golkar
)
, foundation =
, youth = AMPG (Golkar Party Young Force)
, women = KPPG (Golkar Party Women's Corps)
, newspaper = '' Suara Karya'' (1971–2016)
, headquarters = Jakarta
, ideology ...
Party, inducing the changes of Suharto's policy toward Muslims.
During the 1980s and 1990s, the progressive branch of neo-modernism had gained a strong presence thanks to Nurcholish Madjid and his Paramadina University. Madjid and other modernists were active in the political organization
Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals
The Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals (Indonesian: ''Ikatan Cendekiawan Muslim Indonesia'', ICMI) is a Muslim organization in Indonesia. Founded in 1990 by Indonesian Secretary of Research and Technology B. J. Habibie, the organisati ...
(ICMI). ICMI became the main vehicle for the Suharto regime's attempt to obtain Muslim support. However, Madjid later broke off with ICMI for its compromise toward the Suharto regime. Neo-modernists and Madjid had played a major role, along with progressive traditionalists such as Abdurrahman Wahid after the fall of Suharto and the democratic transition in the
reformation
The Reformation (alternatively named the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation) was a major movement within Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Catholic Church and in ...
era.
After the reformation, modernists of Muhammadiyah established
National Mandate Party
The National Mandate Party ( id, Partai Amanat Nasional), frequently abbreviated to PAN, is an Islam-basedAl-Hamdi, Ridho. (2017). ''Moving towards a Normalised Path: Political Islam in Contemporary Indonesia''. JURNAL STUDI PEMERINTAHAN (JOURNAL ...
(PAN) with
Amien Rais as the chairman. Puritan branch of modernists has been absorbed to
Jemaah Tarbiyah Jemaah Tarbiyah,Machmudi, 2008. also known as the Tarbiyah movementSalman, 2006. or the Dakwah movement,Salman, 2006. p.184. is an Islamic religious movement based in Indonesia. Jemaah Tarbiyah was an active movement during the 1980s to 1990s and c ...
which founded
Prosperous Justice Party
The Prosperous Justice Party ( id, Partai Keadilan Sejahtera, sometimes called the Justice and Prosperity Party), frequently abbreviated to PKS, is an IslamistAl-Hamdi, Ridho. (2017). ''Moving towards a Normalised Path: Political Islam in Contempo ...
(PKS). Neo-modernists influenced the creation of
Liberal Islam Network
Jaringan Islam Liberal (JIL) or the Liberal Islam Network is a loose forum for discussing and disseminating the concept of Liberal Islam, Islamic liberalism in Indonesia. One reason for its establishment is to counter the growing influence and act ...
(JIL) and the progressive Muhammadiyah Berkemajuan movement.
[Burhani, 2016.]
Notes
Footnotes
References
*Ali, F. and Effendy, B. (1986). ''Merambah Jalan Baru Islam: Rekonstruksi Pemikiran Islam Indonesia Masa Orde Baru''. Bandung: Mizan.
*Barton, G. (1994). The Impact of Neo-modernism on Indonesian Islamic Thought: The Emergence of a New Pluralism. In D. Bourchier and J. Legge (Eds.), ''Democracy in Indonesia: 1950s and 1990s'' (pp.143-150). Clayton: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University.
*Barton, G. (1995). Neo-modernism: A Vital Synthesis of Traditionalist and Modernist Islamic Thought in Indonesia. ''Studia Islamika'', 12(3), 1–76.
*Burhani, N. (2016). ''Muhammadiyah Berkemajuan: Pergeseran dari Puritanisme ke Kosmopolitanisme''. Bandung: Mizan.
*Bush, R. (2009). ''Nadhlatul Ulama & the Struggle for Power within Islam & Politics in Indonesia''. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing.
*Feener, M. (2007). ''Muslim Legal Thought in Modern Indonesia''. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Geertz, C. (1960). ''The Religion of Java''. Glencoe IL: Free Press.
*Hefner, R. (2000). ''Civil Islam''. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
*Machmudi, Y. (2008). ''Islamising Indonesia: The rise of Jemaah Tarbiyah and the Prosperous Justice Party (PKS)''. ANU Press. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt24hddh
*Von Der Mehden, F.R. (1995). Indonesia. In J.L. Esposito (Ed), ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
{{Islam in Indonesia
Islam in Indonesia
Sunni Islamic movements