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The Mixtecs (), or Mixtecos, are indigenous
Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica. W ...
n peoples of Mexico inhabiting the region known as
La Mixteca La Mixteca is a cultural, economic and political region in Western Oaxaca and neighboring portions of Puebla, Guerrero in south-central Mexico, which refers to the home of the Mixtec people. In their languages, the region is called either Ñuu Djau ...
of
Oaxaca Oaxaca ( , also , , from nci, Huāxyacac ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca), is one of the 32 states that compose the political divisions of Mexico, Federative Entities of Mexico. It is ...
and
Puebla Puebla ( en, colony, settlement), officially Free and Sovereign State of Puebla ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Puebla), is one of the 32 states which comprise the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 217 municipalities and its cap ...
as well as La Montaña Region and Costa Chica Regions of the state of
Guerrero Guerrero is one of the 32 states that comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 81 municipalities and its capital city is Chilpancingo and its largest city is Acapulcocopied from article, GuerreroAs of 2020, Guerrero the pop ...
. The
Mixtec Culture The Mixtec culture (also called Mixtec Civilization) was a pre-hispanic archaeological culture, corresponding to the ancestors of the Mixtec people; they called themselves ñuu Savi (a name that their descendants still preserve), which means "peo ...
was the main Mixtec civilization, which lasted from around 1500 BC until being conquered by the Spanish in 1523. The Mixtec region is generally divided into three subregions based on geography: the
Mixteca Alta La Mixteca is a cultural, economic and political region in Western Oaxaca and neighboring portions of Puebla, Guerrero in south-central Mexico, which refers to the home of the Mixtec people. In their languages, the region is called either Ñuu Djau ...
(Upper Mixtec or Ñuu Savi Sukun), the
Mixteca Baja La Mixteca is a cultural, economic and political region in Western Oaxaca and neighboring portions of Puebla, Guerrero in south-central Mexico, which refers to the home of the Mixtec people. In their languages, the region is called either Ñuu Djau ...
(Lower Mixtec or Ñuu I'ni), and the Mixteca Costa (Coastal Mixtec or Ñuu Andivi). The Alta is drier with higher elevations, while the Baja is lower in elevation, hot but dry, and the Coasta also low in elevation but much more humid and tropical. The Alta has seen the most study by archaeologists, with evidence for human settlement going back to the Archaic and Early Formative periods. The first urbanized sites emerged here. Long considered to be part of the larger Mixteca region, groups living in the Baja were probably more culturally related to neighboring peoples in Eastern Guerrero than they were to the Mixtecs of the Alta. They even had their own hieroglyphic writing system called ñuiñe. The Costa only came under control of the Mixtecs during the military campaigns of the Mixtec cultural hero
Eight Deer Jaguar Claw Eight Deer Jaguar Claw ( mix, Iya Nacuaa Teyusi Ñaña ), or 8 Deer for brevity, was a powerful Mixtec ruler in 11th century Oaxaca referred to in the 15th century deerskin manuscript Codex Zouche-Nuttall, and other Mixtec manuscripts. His surna ...
. Originally from
Tilantongo Tilantongo was a Mixtec citystate in the Mixteca Alta region of the modern-day state of Oaxaca which is now visible as an archeological site and a modern town of Santiago Tilantongo. It is located at 17°15' N. Lat. and 97°17' W. Long. Its Mixte ...
in the Alta, Eight Deer and his armies conquered several major and minor kingdoms on their way to the coast, establishing the capital of
Tututepec Tututepec is a Mesoamerican archaeological site. It is located in the lower Río Verde valley on the coast of Oaxaca that formed the nucleus of an extensive Mixtec state during the Late Postclassic period (ca. 12th to early 16th centuries). At i ...
in the Lower Río Verde valley. Previously, the Costa had been primarily occupied by the
Chatinos The Chatinos are an indigenous people of Mexico. Chatino communities are located in the southeastern region of the state of Oaxaca in southern central Mexico. Their native Chatino language are spoken by about 23,000 people (Ethnologue surveys), b ...
. In pre-Columbian times, a number of Mixtec kingdoms competed and allied with each other and with Zapotec kingdoms in the Central Valleys. Like the rest of the
indigenous peoples of Mexico Indigenous peoples of Mexico ( es, gente indígena de México, pueblos indígenas de México), Native Mexicans ( es, nativos mexicanos) or Mexican Native Americans ( es, pueblos originarios de México, lit=Original peoples of Mexico), are those ...
, the Mixtec were conquered by the Spanish invaders and their indigenous allies in the 16th century. Pre-Columbian Mixtecs numbered around 1.5 million. Today there are approximately 800,000 Mixtec people in Mexico, and there are also large populations in the United States. The Mixtec languages form a major branch of the Oto-Manguean language family.


Nomenclature and etymology

The term Mixtec (''Mixteco'' in Spanish) comes from the
Nahuatl Nahuatl (; ), Aztec, or Mexicano is a language or, by some definitions, a group of languages of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Varieties of Nahuatl are spoken by about Nahua peoples, most of whom live mainly in Central Mexico and have smaller ...
word ''mixtecah'' , "cloud people". There are many names that the Mixtecs have for naming themselves: ''ñuù savi, nayívi savi, ñuù davi, nayivi davi''. etc. All these denominations can be translated as 'the land of the rain'. The historic homeland of Mixtec people is La Mixteca, called in Mixtec language ''Ñuu Savi'', ''Ñuu Djau'', ''Ñuu Davi'', etc., depending on the local variant. They call their language ''sa'an davi'', ''da'an davi'' or ''tu'un savi''.


Overview

In
pre-Columbian In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492. Usually, th ...
times, the Mixtec were one of the major civilizations of
Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica. W ...
. Important ancient centers of the Mixtec include the ancient capital of
Tilantongo Tilantongo was a Mixtec citystate in the Mixteca Alta region of the modern-day state of Oaxaca which is now visible as an archeological site and a modern town of Santiago Tilantongo. It is located at 17°15' N. Lat. and 97°17' W. Long. Its Mixte ...
, as well as the sites of
Achiutla The thumb is the first digit of the hand, next to the index finger. When a person is standing in the medical anatomical position (where the palm is facing to the front), the thumb is the outermost digit. The Medical Latin English noun for thum ...
,
Cuilapan Cuilapan de Guerrero is a town and municipality located in the central valley region of Oaxaca in southern Mexico. It is to the south of the capital city of Oaxaca on the road leading to Villa de Zaachila, and is in the Centro District in the V ...
, Huajuapan,
Mitla Mitla is the second-most important archeological site in the state of Oaxaca in Mexico, and the most important of the Zapotec culture. The site is located 44 km from the city of Oaxaca, in the upper end of the Tlacolula Valley, one of the t ...
,
Tlaxiaco Tlaxiaco is a city, and its surrounding municipality of the same name, in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. It is located in the Tlaxiaco District in the south of the Mixteca Region, with a population of about 17,450. The city is formally known as Her ...
,
Tututepec Tututepec is a Mesoamerican archaeological site. It is located in the lower Río Verde valley on the coast of Oaxaca that formed the nucleus of an extensive Mixtec state during the Late Postclassic period (ca. 12th to early 16th centuries). At i ...
,
Juxtlahuaca Juxtlahuaca is a cave and archaeological site in the Mexican state of Guerrero containing murals linked to the Olmec motifs and iconography. Along with the nearby Oxtotitlán cave, Juxtlahuaca walls contain the earliest sophisticated painted art ...
, and Yucuñudahui. The Mixtec also made major constructions at the ancient city of
Monte Albán Monte Albán is a large pre-Columbian archaeological site in the Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán Municipality in the southern Mexican state of Oaxaca (17.043° N, 96.767°W). The site is located on a low mountainous range rising above the plain in the ...
(which had originated as a Zapotec city before the Mixtec gained control of it). The work of Mixtec artisans who produced work in
stone In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its Chemical compound, chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks ...
, wood, and metal was well regarded throughout ancient Mesoamerica. According to West, "the Mixtec of Oaxaca...were the foremost goldsmiths of Mesoamerica," which included the "
lost-wax casting Lost-wax casting (also called "investment casting", "precision casting", or ''cire perdue'' which has been adopted into English from the French, ) is the process by which a duplicate metal sculpture (often silver, gold, brass, or bronze) is ...
of gold and its alloys." At the height of the Aztec Empire, many Mixtecs paid tribute to the Aztecs, but not all Mixtec towns became
vassal A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain. W ...
s. They put up resistance to Spanish rule until they were subdued by the Spanish and their central Mexican allies led by
Pedro de Alvarado Pedro de Alvarado (; c. 1485 – 4 July 1541) was a Spanish conquistador and governor of Guatemala.Lovell, Lutz and Swezey 1984, p. 461. He participated in the conquest of Cuba, in Juan de Grijalva's exploration of the coasts of the Yucatá ...
. Mixtecs have migrated to various parts of both Mexico and the United States. In recent years a large exodus of indigenous peoples from Oaxaca, such as the Zapotec and Triqui, has seen them emerge as one of the most numerous groups of
Amerindians The Indigenous peoples of the Americas are the inhabitants of the Americas before the arrival of the European settlers in the 15th century, and the ethnic groups who now identify themselves with those peoples. Many Indigenous peoples of the Ame ...
in the United States. As of 2011, an estimated 150,000 Mixteco people were living in California, and 25,000 to 30,000 in New York City. Large Mixtec communities exist in the
border Borders are usually defined as geographical boundaries, imposed either by features such as oceans and terrain, or by political entities such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other subnational entities. Political borders c ...
cities of
Tijuana, Baja California Tijuana ( ,"Tijuana"
(US) and < ...
, San Diego, California and
Tucson, Arizona , "(at the) base of the black ill , nicknames = "The Old Pueblo", "Optics Valley", "America's biggest small town" , image_map = , mapsize = 260px , map_caption = Interactive map ...
. Mixtec communities are generally described as trans-national or trans-border because of their ability to maintain and reaffirm social ties between their native homelands and diasporic community. (See:
Mixtec transnational migration Mixtec transnational migration is the phenomenon whereby Mixtec people have migrated between Mexico and the United States, for over three generations. The Mixtec transnational social experience challenges traditional conceptions of cultural iden ...
.)


Mixtecs in the colonial era

There is considerable documentation in the Mixtec (Ñudzahui) native language for the colonial era, which has been studied as part of the
New Philology New Philology generally refers to a branch of Mexican ethnohistory and philology that uses colonial-era native language texts written by Indians to construct history from the indigenous point of view. The name New Philology was coined by James Lock ...
. Mixtec documentation indicates parallels between many indigenous social and political structures with those in the Nahua areas, but published research on the Mixtecs does not primarily focus on economic matters. There is considerable Mixtec documentation for land issues, but sparse for market activity, perhaps because indigenous cabildos did not regulate commerce or mediate economic disputes except for land. Long-distance trade existed in the prehispanic era and continued in indigenous hands in the early colonial. In the second half of the colonial period, there were bilingual Mixtec merchants, dealing in both Spanish and indigenous goods, who operated regionally. However, in the Mixteca “by the eighteenth century, commerce was dominated by Spaniards in all but the most local venues of exchange, involving the sale of agricultural commodities and indigenous crafts or the resale of imported goods.”. Despite the development of a local exchange economy, a number of Spaniards with economic interests in Oaxaca, including “ me of the Mixteca priests, merchants, and landowners maintained permanent residence in Puebla, and labor for the ''obrajes'' (textile workshops) of the city of Puebla in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was sometimes recruited from peasant villages in the Mixteca." There is evidence of community litigation against Mixtec caciques who leased land to Spaniards and the growth of individually contracted wage labor. Mixtec documentation from the late eighteenth century indicates that "most caciques were simply well-to-do investors in Spanish-style enterprises"; some married non-Indians; and in the late colonial era had little claim to hereditary authority.


Geography

The Mixtec area, both historically and currently, corresponds roughly to the western half of the state of
Oaxaca Oaxaca ( , also , , from nci, Huāxyacac ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca), is one of the 32 states that compose the political divisions of Mexico, Federative Entities of Mexico. It is ...
, with some Mixtec communities extending into the neighboring state of
Puebla Puebla ( en, colony, settlement), officially Free and Sovereign State of Puebla ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Puebla), is one of the 32 states which comprise the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 217 municipalities and its cap ...
to the north-west and also the state of
Guerrero Guerrero is one of the 32 states that comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 81 municipalities and its capital city is Chilpancingo and its largest city is Acapulcocopied from article, GuerreroAs of 2020, Guerrero the pop ...
. The Mixtec people and their homelands are often subdivided into three geographic areas: The ''
Mixteca Alta La Mixteca is a cultural, economic and political region in Western Oaxaca and neighboring portions of Puebla, Guerrero in south-central Mexico, which refers to the home of the Mixtec people. In their languages, the region is called either Ñuu Djau ...
'' or Highland Mixtec living in the mountains in, around, and to the west of the
Valley of Oaxaca The Central Valleys ( es, Valles Centrales) of Oaxaca, also simply known as the Oaxaca Valley, is a geographic region located within the modern-day state of Oaxaca in southern Mexico. In an administrative context, it has been defined as comprising ...
; the ''
Mixteca Baja La Mixteca is a cultural, economic and political region in Western Oaxaca and neighboring portions of Puebla, Guerrero in south-central Mexico, which refers to the home of the Mixtec people. In their languages, the region is called either Ñuu Djau ...
'' or Lowland Mixtec living to the north and west of these highlands, and the ''
Mixteca de la Costa La Mixteca is a cultural, economic and political region in Western Oaxaca and neighboring portions of Puebla, Guerrero in south-central Mexico, which refers to the home of the Mixtec people. In their languages, the region is called either Ñuu Dja ...
'' or Coastal Mixtec living in the southern plains and the coast of the Pacific Ocean. For most of Mixtec history, the Mixteca Alta was the dominant political force, with the capitals of the Mixtec nation located in the central highlands. The valley of Oaxaca itself was often a disputed border region, sometimes dominated by the Mixtec and sometimes by their neighbors to the east, the Zapotec. An ancient Coixtlahuaca Basin cave site known as the
Colossal Natural Bridge Ndaxagua (also Ndaxagua cave, Ndaxagua natural tunnel), locally known in Spanish as ''El Puente Colosal'' ("Colossal aturalBridge") is a natural cave with double entrance and archaeological site, located in the extreme northern end of the Coixtlah ...
is an important sacred place for the Mixtec.


Rulers at Mixteca Alta


Acatepec Acatepec is a city and seat of the municipality of Acatepec, in the state of Guerrero, south-western Mexico Mexico (Spanish language, Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a List of sovereign states, country in the ...
, ''Yucu Yoo''

* 1090-1097: Lady 6 Monkey ''War Quexquemitl'' (usurper, deposed), ** Sub-rulers Lord 3 Aligator and Lord 1 Movement * 1097-1115: Lord 8 Deer ''Jaguar Claw'' (usurper)


Achiutla The thumb is the first digit of the hand, next to the index finger. When a person is standing in the medical anatomical position (where the palm is facing to the front), the thumb is the outermost digit. The Medical Latin English noun for thum ...
, ''Ñuu Ndecu''


Suchixtlán/Huachino dynasty

* ?: Lord 11 Flower ''Cloud Xicolli'', with Lady 13 Wind ''Cloud Hair'' (siblings and spouses, children of Lord 4 Wind, King of ''Nuu Yuchi'') * ?: Lord 10 Aligator ''Digging Stick'' (father-in-law of Lord 2 Wind, King of Tlaxiaco) * ?: Lord 8 Wind ''Smoked Claw'' (brother-in-law of Lord 12 Deer, King of Tlaxiaco) * ?: Lord 7 Movement ''Blood Shedding Rain'' (son-in-law of 11 Wind, King of Tlaxiaco) * ?: Lord 9 Wind ''Sun Fire Serpent'' * ?: Lord 10 Aligator ''Jaguar with Claws like Flints'' (son of the previous)


''Water Rubber Ball'' ( Chacahua? Manialtepec?)

* ?: Lord 9 Serpent (deposed) * ?-1115: Lord 8 Deer ''Jaguar Claw'' (usurper)


Andua Andua is a village in Patuakhali District in the Barisal Division of southern-central Bangladesh Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in th ...

* ?: Lord 3 Monkey ''Mexican Jaguar''


Bulto de Xipe A ' (English language, English: 'Saint (Catholicism), saint') is a piece of one of various religious art forms found in Spain and areas that Spanish Empire, were colonies of the Kingdom of Spain, consisting of wooden or ivory statues that depic ...
/ Huachino

* ?: Lord 10 Movement * ?: Lord 12 Lizard * ?-1101: Lord 11 Wind ''Blood Jaguar'' (son of the previous) ** To Tilantongo (1101-1115) and ''Nuu Yuchi'' (1115-1164) * ?: Lord 6 Vulture ''Jaguar with Knife'' (son of Lord 9 Rain of Tlaxiaco)


Chalcatongo Chalcatongo de Hidalgo (also, Chalcatongo and Villa Hidalgo) is a municipality in the States of Mexico, Mexican state of Oaxaca. It is part of the Tlaxiaco District in the south of the Mixteca Region. It is the birthplace of former Governor of Oax ...
, ''Nuu Ndaya''

* ?: Lord 8 Aligator ''Bloody Coyote'' ** ?: Lord 3 Dog (son-in-law of Lord 8 Alligator, in the settlement of
Santa Catarina Yuxia Santa Claus, also known as Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, Saint Nick, Kris Kringle, or simply Santa, is a legendary figure originating in Western Christian culture who is said to bring children gifts during the late evening and overnight ...
, ''Yuu Usa'') * ?: Lord 13 Jaguar ''War Beard'' (descendant)


Cholula

* ?: Lord 1 Lizard ''Serpent-Decorated Shield'', with Lady 11 Serpent ''Jewel Mouth'' (wife) * c.1096: Lord 4 Jaguar ''Night Face''


Jaltepec Magdalena Jaltepec is a town and Municipalities of Mexico State, municipality in Oaxaca in southwestern Mexico. The municipality covers an area of 184.99 km². It is part of the Nochixtlán District in the southeast of the Mixteca Region, Oaxaca ...
, ''Añute''

* ?: Lord 10 Reed ''Eagle'' * ?: Lord 3 Rain (son of the previous)


Suchixtlán dynasty

* ?-1027: Lord 8 Wind ''Twenty Jaguars'' ** ?: Lord 13 Grass (son of Lord 8 Wind, in the settlement of ''Arrow-Red Liquid'' ) * 1027-1090: Lady 9 Wind ''Stone Quexquemitl'' (daughter of Lord 8 Wind), with Lord 10 Eagle ''Stone Jaguar'' (son of Lord 10 Flower, King of Tilantongo) * 1090-1101: Lady 6 Monkey ''War Quexquemitl'' (daughter of the previous) * 1101-?: Lord 1 Alligator ''Field Eagle'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 5 Lizard (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 3 Reed (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 1 Rain (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 9 Lizard ''Flames'' (descendant) * ?: Lord 2 Jaguar (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 5 Water ''Jaguar of Tlaxiaco'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 10 Monkey ''Rain Falling from Heaven'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 10 Rain ''Sun Rain'' * ?: Lord 13 Grass ''Fire Serpent''


Juquila Santa Catarina Juquila is a town in the State of Oaxaca, Mexico, and is the seat of the municipality also called Santa Catarina Juquila. It is part of the Juquila District in the center of the Costa Region The Costa Region or Costa Chica lies on ...
, ''Nuu Sitoho''

* ?: Lord 1 Death ''Sun Serpent'', with Lady 11 Serpent ''Flower Quetzal Feathers'' (wife)


“Monkey”

* ?: Lord 7 Grass ''Bloody Jaguar''


Mitlatongo, ''Dzandaya''

* ?: Lord 1 Monkey


''Flower Mountain'', ''Yucu Ita''

* ?: Lord 11 Jaguar


''Broken Mountain''

* ?: Lady 1 Death


Place of Flints/Pedernales, ''Nuu Yuchi''


Suchixtlán/Huachino dynasty

* 1115-1164: Lord 4 Wind ''Fire Serpent'' (son of Lady 6 Monkey, Queen of Jaltepec) * 1164-?: Lady 13 Flower ''Precious Jewel'' (daughter of the previous * ?: Lord 7 Eagle ''Flames'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 4 Jaguar ''War Jaguar'' (brother of the previous) * ?: Lord 1 Eagle (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 7 Reed (son of the previous) ** Annexed to Teozacoalco


Quetzal

* ?: Lord 4 Stone ''Face with Quetzal Feathers''


Río de la Serpiente

* ?: Lord 3 Eagle


San Pedro Cántaros, ''Nuu Naha''


Teozacoalco dynasty

* ?: Lord 1 House ''Jaguar Sky Assassin'' (son of Lord 8 Rabbit, King of Teozacoalco) * ?: Lord 6 Death ''Sun Rain'' (descendant, brother-in-law of Lord 6 Deer, King of Teozacoalco) * ?: Lord 3 Dog (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 3 Monkey (grandson of the previous)


''Place of the Drum'' ( Soyaltepec) (?)

* ?: Lord 4 Jaguar ''Serpent War Snare''


Suchixtlán, ''Chiyo Yuhu''

* ?: Lord 8 Wind ''Stone Eagle/Twenty Eagles'' (also in Jaltepec)


Teozacoalco dynasty

* ?: Lord 13 Eagle ''Bloody Jaguar'' (husband of Lady 12 Flower, Queen of Tilantongo) * ?: Lord 6 Deer ''Sacred Rain'' (brother-in-law of the previous; also king in Teozacoalco) * ?: Lord 4 Death ''War Venus'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 8 Monkey (nephew of the former; son of Lord 4 Flower, King of Teozacoalco)


Teita

* ?: Lord 10 Rabbit ''Heart'' * ?: Lord 13 Jaguar ''War Eagle''


Teozacoalco San Pedro Teozacoalco is a town and Municipalities of Oaxaca, municipality in Oaxaca, in south-western Mexico. It is part of the Nochixtlán District in the southeast of the Mixteca Region. As of 2005, the municipality had a total population of 1 ...
, ''Chiyo Cahnu''


Teozacoalco dynasty

* ?: Lord 4 Dog ''Coyote Hunter'' (born c.1110; son of Lord 8 Deer of Tilantongo; independence from Tilantongo) * ?: Lord 13 Dog ''Venus Eagle'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 7 Water ''Red Eagle'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 13 Eagle ''Sacred Rain'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 8 Rabbit ''Fire of Tlaxiaco'' (born in 1189; son of the previous) * ?: Lord 12 House ''Flying Fire Serpent in the Sky'', with Lady 11 Alligator ''Quetzal Jewel'' (siblings and spouses, children of Lord 8 Rabbit) * ?-1321/c.1342: Lord 9 Movement ''Precious Water'', with Lady 2 Jaguar ''Jade Spiderweb'' (siblings and spouses, children of the previous)


Zaachila/Xipe dynasty

* 1321Pérez Jiménez & Jansen 2010, p.407-461/1346-?: Lord 2 Dog ''Rope and Knives'' (son of Lady 4 Rabbit, sister of the previous) * ?: Lord 9 House ''Mexican Jaguar'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 2 Water ''Fire Serpent'' (son of the previous, also in Tilantongo) * ?: Lord 5 Rain ''Eagle that comes down from Heaven'' (son of the previous, , also in Tilantongo) Here there was an ''exchange'' of lines: Lord 5 Rain's sons inherited Tlaxiaco; the inheritors of Teozacoalco were the children of Lady 12 Flower (Lord 5 Rain's sister).


Suchixtlán dynasty

* ?: Lord 6 Deer ''Sacred Rain'' (born in 1393; son of Lady 12 Flower, sister of the previous) * ?: Lord 4 Flower ''Pheasant'' (born in 1409; son of the previous) * ?: Lord 10 Rain ''Sun Rain'' (born in 1438; son of the previous) * ?: Lord 4 Deer ''Eagle of Tlaxiaco'' (born in 1476; son of the previous)


Tilantongo Tilantongo was a Mixtec citystate in the Mixteca Alta region of the modern-day state of Oaxaca which is now visible as an archeological site and a modern town of Santiago Tilantongo. It is located at 17°15' N. Lat. and 97°17' W. Long. Its Mixte ...
, ''Ñuu Tnoo''


1st dynasty of Tilantongo

* ?: Lord 10 House ''Jaguar'' * ?: Lord 3 Eagle ''Eagle of the Serpent Place'' * ?: Lord 9 Wind ''Stone Skull'' * ?: Lord 10 Flower (I) ''Burnt-Eyed Jaguar'' ** ?: Lord 10 Flower (II) ''Tail Arc'' (brother-in-law of 10 Flower (I); in the settlement of ''Dark Speckled Mountain'' ) ** ?: Lord 13 Death (son-in-law of 10 Flower; in the settlement of ''Head'' ; he would also become father-in-law of Lord 8 Deer) ** ?: Lord 10 Reed (I) ''Precious Jaguar'' (son-in-law of 10 Flower (I); in the settlement of
Tataltepec Tataltepec may refer to: *Tataltepec de Valdés, Oaxaca *Santa María Tataltepec Santa María Tataltepec is a town and municipality in Oaxaca in south-western Mexico. The municipality covers an area of km². It is part of the Tlaxiaco Distric ...
(''Yucu Tatnu'')) ** ?: Lord 10 Reed (II) (son-in-law of 10 Flower (I); in the settlement of
Topiltepec San Pedro Topiltepec is a town and municipality in Oaxaca in south-western Mexico. It is part of the Teposcolula District in the center of the Mixteca Region. The name "Topiltepec" means "The Sheriff Hill". The municipality covers an area of 45.9 ...
, ''Yucu Quesi/Nuu Ñañu'' ) * ?-c.1080: Lord 12 Lizard ''Arrow Feet'' (son of Lord 10 Flower (I)) * c.1080-?: Lord 5 Movement (son of the previous) * ?-1096: Lord 2 Rain ''Twenty Jaguars'' (son of the previous) ** Lady 4 Rabbit ''Precious Quetzal'' (sister of Lord 12 Lizard) was the probable heiress, as, before usurping the throne, Lord 8 Deer had bowed to her)


2nd dynasty of Tilantongo

* 1097-1115: Lord 8 Deer ''Jaguar Claw'' (usurper; after his death influence passed to Pedernales', but succession continues) ** ?: Lord 1 Deer ''Coanacoch'' (father-in-law of Lord 8 Deer, in the settlement of Cuyotepeji) * 1115-?: Lord 6 House ''Jaguar Falling from Heaven'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 5 Water ''Stone Jaguar Heaven'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 8 Reed ''Pheasant'', with Lady 5 Rabbit ''Jewel'' (siblings and spouses, children of the previous) * ?-1206: 2 Movement ''Serpent with Markings'' (son of the previous) ** Lord 1 Lizard ''Bloody Jaguar'' (son of the previous, heir apparent) * 1206-?: Lord 12 Reed ''Coyote Sun'', with Lady 3 Jaguar ''Precious Butterfly Sun'' (siblings and spouses, children of Lord 1 Lizard) * ?: Lord 5 Rain ''Sun Movement'' (son of the previous) ** ?: Lord 7 Movement ''Bloody Jaguar'' (father-in-law of Lord 5 Rain, in the settlement of ''Puma'' ) * ?: Lord 13 Wind ''Fire Serpent'' (son of Lord 5 Rain) * ?: Lord 9 Serpent ''Jaguar that Lightens the War'' (son of the previous) * ?-1341: Lord 4 Water ''Bloody Eagle'' (son of the previous)


Teozacoalco dynasty

* 1341-?: Lady 6 Water ''Quetzal Flower War Jewel'' (widow of the previous) * ?: Lord 2 Water ''Fire Serpent'' (brother of the previous, also in Teozacoalco) * ?: Lord 5 Rain ''Eagle that comes down from Heaven'' (son of the previous, also in Teozacoalco) * ?: Lady 12 Flower ''Broken Mountain Butterfly'' (daughter of the previous), with Lord 13 Eagle ''Bloody Jaguar'' (of Suchixtlán; husband) ** To Teozacoalco


Tlaxiaco Tlaxiaco is a city, and its surrounding municipality of the same name, in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. It is located in the Tlaxiaco District in the south of the Mixteca Region, with a population of about 17,450. The city is formally known as Her ...
, ''Ndisi Nuu''


1st dynasty of Tlaxiaco

* ?: Lord 8 Jaguar ''Bloody Coyote'' * ?: Lord 4 Grass ''Sun Face''(son of the previous) * ?: Lord 2 Wind ''Bloody Rain'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 2 Movement ''Fire Serpent in Flames'' (uncle of the previous; brother of Lord 4 Grass) * ?: Lord 3 Serpent ''Flame Rain'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 1 Deer ''Eagle'' (son of the previous) * ?-1305: Lord 12 Rain ''Bloody Jaguar'' (son of the previous) * 1305-?: Lady 8 Serpent ''Sun Spiderweb'' (daughter of the previous), with Lord 3 Dog ''Venus Sun'' (great-grandson of Lord 1 Movement, brother of Lord 2 Wind) * ?: Lord 12 Deer ''Serpent that Lightens the War'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 6 Death (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 4 Movement (son of the previous) * ?: Lady 11 Rabbit ''Jewel of the Rising Sun'' (niece of 12 Deer; daughter of Lord 12 Deer's sister Lady 10 Dog)


2nd dynasty of Tlaxiaco

* ?: Lord 10 Rabbit ''Jaguar of Tlaxiaco'' (husband and co-ruler of the previous) * ?: Lord 9 Rain ''Bloody Jaguar'' (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 11 Wind ''Smoked Claw'' (son of the previous) ** ?: Lord 1 Dog (brother-in-law of Lord 11 Wind, in the settlement of ''Feline Mountain'' ) * ?: Lord 1 Monkey ''Sun Rain'' (son of Lord 11 Wind) ** ?: Lord 3 Reed ''Smoked Eye'' (son of Lord 1 Monkey, in the settlement of Cuilapán) * ?: Lord 13 Eagle ''Eagle of Tlaxiaco'' (son of Lord 1 Monkey)


Teozacoalco dynasty

* ?: Lady 8 Deer ''Quetzal Spiderweb'' (daughter of Lady 5 Flower, daughter of the previous, and Lord 5 Rain, King of Teozacoalco) * ?: Lord 3 Serpent ''Venus Sun'' (brother of the previous) * ?-1511: Lord 8 Grass ''Sun Rain'' ( Malinaltzin) (brother of the previous)


Totomihuacan

* ?: Lord 5 Eagle


Tula Tula may refer to: Geography Antarctica *Tula Mountains *Tula Point India *Tulā, a solar month in the traditional Indian calendar Iran * Tula, Iran, a village in Hormozgan Province Italy * Tula, Sardinia, municipality (''comune'') in the pr ...
(
Toltec The Toltec culture () was a Pre-Columbian era, pre-Columbian Mesoamerican culture that ruled a state centered in Tula (Mesoamerican site), Tula, Hidalgo (state), Hidalgo, Mexico, during the Epiclassic and the early Post-Classic period of Mesoam ...
)

* ?: Lord 4 Jaguar


Tututepec Tututepec is a Mesoamerican archaeological site. It is located in the lower Río Verde valley on the coast of Oaxaca that formed the nucleus of an extensive Mixtec state during the Late Postclassic period (ca. 12th to early 16th centuries). At i ...
, ''Yucu Dzaa''

* ?: Nizainzo Huidzo * c.357: Mzatzin * 1084-1097: Lord 8 Deer ''Jaguar Claw'' (usurper) ** to Tilantongo


''Deep Valley''

* ?: Lord 12 Dog ''Eagle'', with Lady 5 Lizard ''Pulque-Zacate Vase'' (wife)


Yanhuitlán

* c.1320: Lord 6 Water ''Multicolored Feathers'' * c.1500?: Lady 1 Flower ''Jaguar Quexquemitl'', with Lord 8 Death ''Fire Serpent'' (husband; son of Lord 10 Rain, King of Teozacualco)


Zaachila Zaachila (the Zapotec name; Nahuatl: ''Teotzapotlan''; Mixtec: ''Ñuhu Tocuisi'') was a powerful Mesoamerican city in what is now Oaxaca, Mexico, from the city of Oaxaca. The city is named after Zaachila Yoo, the Zapotec ruler, in the late 14 ...
, ''Nuhu Tocuisi'' ( Zapotec)


Xipe dynasty

* ?: Lord 9 Serpent * ?-1328: Lord 5 Flower Xipe (son of the previous) * 1328-1361:
Lord 3 Alligator Lord is an appellation for a person or deity who has authority, control, or power over others, acting as a master, chief, or ruler. The appellation can also denote certain persons who hold a title of the peerage in the United Kingdom, or a ...
, ''Ozomatli'' (second son of the previous) * 1361-1386: Lord 11 Water ''Stone Rain'', ''Huijatoo'' (son of the previous) * 1386-1415: Lord 6 Water, ''Zaachila I'' (son of the previous) * 1415-1454: Lord 3 Reed ''Smoked Eye'', ''Zaachila II'' (son of the previous) * 1454-1487: Lord 5 Reed ''Twenty Jaguars'', ''Zaachila III'' (cousin of the previous; son of Lady 3 Alligator, daughter of King 11 Water) * 1487-1502: Lord 8 Deer ''Fire Serpent'', ''Cosijoeza'' (nephew of the previous; son of Lord 5 Rain, King of Teozacoalco) * 1502-1523:
Cosijopii I Cosijopii I also Cosiiopii I (December 30, 1502–1563) was the last sovereign of the Kingdom of Zaachila, that was named by the Aztecs as Teotzapotlan. Such kingdom was located in the west side of the current Mexican state of Oaxaca and duri ...
, with Pinopija (until c.1520) (children of the previous) ** 1502-1518: Xilabela, regent


Zacatepec, ''Yucu Chatuta''

* 1120-?: Lord 11 Jaguar ''Tlaloc Fire Wall''


Rulers at Mixteca Baja


Acatlan

* ?: Lord 1 Rain * ?: Lord 9 Reed (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 6 Deer (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 4 Dog (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 8 Flint (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 8 Alligator (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 7 Monkey (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 8 Movement (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 9 Flint (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 6 Water (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 4 Eagle (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 10 Reed (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 4 Flower (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 4 House (son of the previous) * ?-1519/20: ''Unknown'' (son of the previous) ** To the
Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Cana ...


Chila

* ?: Lord 10 Flint * ?: Lord 4 Deer (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 1 Eagle (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 13 Dog (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 13 Reed (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 2 Monkey (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 10 Monkey (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 10 Movement (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 3 House (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 8 Wind (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 6 Rabbit (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 13 Death (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 1 House (son of the previous) * ?: Lord 5 Monkey (son of the previous) * ?-1519/20: Lord 4 Dog (son of the previous) ** To the
Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Cana ...


Language, codices, and artwork

The
Mixtecan languages The Mixtecan languages constitute a branch of the Oto-Manguean language family of Mexico. They include the Trique (or Triqui) languages, spoken by about 24,500 people; Cuicatec, spoken by about 15,000 people; and the large expanse of Mixtec langu ...
(in their many variants) were estimated to be spoken by about 300,000 people at the end of the 20th century, although the majority of Mixtec speakers also had at least a working knowledge of the Spanish language. Some Mixtecan languages are called by names other than Mixtec, particularly Cuicatec (Cuicateco), and Triqui (or Trique). The Mixtec are well known in the anthropological world for their Codices or phonetic pictures in which they wrote their history and genealogies in deerskin in the "fold-book" form. The best-known story of the Mixtec Codices is that of Lord Eight Deer, named after the day in which he was born, whose personal name is Jaguar Claw, and whose epic history is related in several codices, including the
Codex Bodley The Codex Bodley is an important pictographic manuscript and example of Mixtec historiography. It was named after the colloquial name of the Bodleian Library, where it has been stored since the 17th century. History While the exact date of its ...
and
Codex Zouche-Nuttall The Codex Zouche-Nuttall or Codex Tonindeye is an accordion-folded pre-Columbian document of Mixtec pictography, now in the collections of the British Museum. It is one of about 16 manuscripts from Mexico that are entirely pre-Columbian in origin ...
. He successfully conquered and united most of the Mixteca region. They were also known for their exceptional mastery of jewelry and mosaic, among which gold and turquoise figure prominently. Products by Mixtec goldsmiths formed an important part of the tribute the Mixtecs paid to the Aztecs during parts of their history. Turquoise mosaic masks also played an important role in both political and religious functions. These masks were used as gifts to form political alliances, in ceremonies during which the wearer of the mask impersonated a god, and were fixed to funerary bundles that were seen as oracles.


References


Further reading

* *


External links

{{Authority control Pre-Columbian cultures of Mexico Indigenous peoples in Mexico Mesoamerican cultures Mesoamerican people Archaeological cultures of North America