A ''missus dominicus'' (plural ''missi dominici''),

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power ...

for "envoy of the lord uler or ''palace inspector'', also known in Dutch as Zendgraaf ( German: ''Sendgraf''), meaning "sent

Graf (feminine: ) is a historical title of the German nobility, usually translated as "count". Considered to be intermediate among noble ranks, the title is often treated as equivalent to the British title of "earl" (whose female version is "coun ...

", was an official commissioned by the Frankish king or Holy Roman Emperor to supervise the administration, mainly of justice, in parts of his dominions too remote for frequent personal visits. As such, the ''missus'' performed important intermediary functions between royal and local administrations. There are superficial points of comparison with the original Roman '' corrector'', except that the ''missus'' was sent out on a regular basis. Four points made the ''missi'' effective as instruments of the centralized monarchy: the personal character of the ''missus'', yearly change, isolation from local interests and the free choice of the king.

Reign of Charlemagne

Based on

Merovingian The Merovingian dynasty () was the ruling family of the Franks from the middle of the 5th century until 751. They first appear as "Kings of the Franks" in the Roman army of northern Gaul. By 509 they had united all the Franks and northern Gauli ...

''ad hoc'' arrangements, using the form ''missus regis'' (the "king's envoy") and sending a layman and an ecclesiastic in pairs, the use of ''missi dominici'' was fully exploited by

Charlemagne Charlemagne ( , ) or Charles the Great ( la, Carolus Magnus; german: Karl der Große; 2 April 747 – 28 January 814), a member of the Carolingian dynasty, was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and the first Em ...

(ruling 768—814), who made them a regular part of his administration, "a highly intelligent and plausible innovation in Carolingian government",

Norman F. Cantor Norman Frank Cantor (November 19, 1929 – September 18, 2004) was a Canadian-American historian who specialized in the medieval period. Known for his accessible writing and engaging narrative style, Cantor's books were among the most widely rea ...

observes, "and a tribute to the administrative skill of the ecclesiastics, such as Alcuin and Einhard". The ''missi'' were at first chosen from Charlemagne's personal, most trusted entourage, of whatever social degree. Soon they were selected only from the secular and ecclesiastical nobility: the entry for 802 in the so-called Lorsch Annals (794–803) states that instead of relying on "poorer

vassal A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain. ...

s", Charlemagne "chose from the kingdom archbishops and bishops and abbots, with dukes and counts, who now had no need to receive gifts from the innocent, and sent them throughout his kingdom, so that they might administer justice to the churches, to widows, orphans and the poor, and to all the people." Presumably the same year the

capitulary A capitulary (Medieval Latin ) was a series of legislative or administrative acts emanating from the Frankish court of the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties, especially that of Charlemagne, the first emperor of the Romans in the west since ...

usually known as the '' Capitulare missorum generale'' was issued, which gives a detailed account of their duties and responsibilities. They were to execute justice, to ensure respect for the king, to control the government of the military

duke Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a duchy, or of a member of Royal family, royalty, or nobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, grand princes, grand dukes, and sovereign princes. As royalty or nobility, t ...

s and administrative

count Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty''. New Yor ...

s (then still royal officials), to receive their oath of allegiance, to let the king's will be known, at times by distributing capitularies around the empire, and to supervise the clergy of their assigned region. In short, they were the direct representatives of the king or Holy Roman Emperor. The inhabitants of the district they administered had to provide for their subsistence, and at times they led the host to battle. The ''missi'' were protected by a triple '' wergeld'' and resistance to them was punishable by death.Laughlin 1903:6. In addition special instructions were given to various ''missi'', and many of these have been preserved. As ''missi'' became a conventional part of court machinery, ''missus ad hoc'' came to signify ''missi'' sent out for some particular purpose. The districts placed under the ordinary ''missi'', which it was their duty to visit for a month at a time, four times a year, were called ''missatici'' or ''legationes'' (a term illustrating the analogy with a

papal legate 300px, A woodcut showing Henry II of England greeting the pope's legate. A papal legate or apostolic legate (from the ancient Roman title ''legatus'') is a personal representative of the pope to foreign nations, or to some part of the Catholic ...

); the ''missatica'' (singular ''missaticum'') avoided division along the lines of the existing

diocese In church governance, a diocese or bishopric is the ecclesiastical district under the jurisdiction of a bishop. History In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associat ...

s or

province A province is almost always an administrative division within a country or state. The term derives from the ancient Roman ''provincia'', which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire's territorial possessions outsi ...

s. The ''missi'' were not permanent officials, but were generally selected from the ranks of officials at the court, and during the reign of Charlemagne high-standing personages undertook this work. They were sent out collegially, usually in twos, an ecclesiastic and a layman, and were generally complete strangers to the district which they administered, to deter them from putting out local roots and acting on their own initiative, as the counts were doing. In addition extraordinary ''missi'' represented the emperor on special occasions, and at times beyond the limits of his dominions. Even under the strong rule of Charlemagne it was difficult to find men to discharge these duties impartially, and after his death in 814 it became almost impossible.

Reigns of Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald

Under Charlemagne's surviving legitimate son,

Louis the Pious Louis the Pious (german: Ludwig der Fromme; french: Louis le Pieux; 16 April 778 – 20 June 840), also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was King of the Franks and co-emperor with his father, Charlemagne, from 813. He was also King of Aqui ...

(ruling 813–840),the process of disintegration was hastened. Once the king associated the choice of ''missi'' with the assembly of nobles, the nobles interfered in the appointment of the ''missi''. The ''missi'' were later selected from the district in which their duties lay, which led to their association with local hereditary filiations and in general a focus upon their own interests rather than that of the king. The 825 list of ''missi'' reveals that the circuits of the ''missatica'' now corresponded with provinces, strengthening local powers. The duties of ''missi'', who gradually increased in number, became merged in the ordinary work of the bishops and counts, and under the emperor

Charles the Bald Charles the Bald (french: Charles le Chauve; 13 June 823 – 6 October 877), also known as Charles II, was a 9th-century king of West Francia (843–877), king of Italy (875–877) and emperor of the Carolingian Empire (875–877). After a s ...

(ruling 843–877), who was repeatedly pressured by bishops to send out ''missi'', they took control of associations for the preservation of the peace. Louis the German (ruling 843–876) is not known to have sent out ''missi''. About the end of the ninth century, with the implosion of Carolingian power, the ''missi'' disappeared from France and during the 10th century from Italy. The ''missi'' were the last attempt to preserve centralised control in the

Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. From the accession of Otto I in 962 ...

. In the course of the ninth century, the forces which were making for

feudalism Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was the combination of the legal, economic, military, cultural and political customs that flourished in medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structu ...

tended to produce inherited fiefdoms as the only way to ensure stability, especially in the face of renewed external aggression in the form of

Viking Vikings ; non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway and Sweden), who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded and s ...

attacks, to which the impaired central power was demonstrated to be impotent.

Notes

Sources and external links

*''Capitulare missorum generale'' ("General Capitulary of the Missi"), Spring 802, ed. G. Pertz, MGH Cap. 1, no. 33; ed. Boretius, no. 60, p. 147; tr.

H.R. Loyn Henry Royston Loyn (16 June 1922 – 9 October 2000), FBA, was a British historian specialising in the history of Anglo-Saxon England. His eminence in his field made him a natural candidate to run the Sylloge of the Coins of the British Isles, ...

and J. Percival, ''The Reign of Charlemagne''. London, 1975. pp. 73–9; tr. D.C. Munro, "General Capitulary of the Missi (802) o. 5. In ''Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European history''. Vol. 6. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1900. pp. 16–8
Available online
*''Capitularia missorum speciale'', ed. G. Pertz, MGH Cap. 1, no. 34; tr.

and J. Percival, ''The Reign of Charlemagne''. London, 1975. pp. 79–82. *Lorsch Annals, ed. G. Pertz, MGH Scriptores 1. entry for 802, pp. 38–9. * Catholic Encyclopaedia (passim)

*Bougard, François. ''La justice dans le royaume d'Italie de la fin du VIIIe siècle au début du XIe siècle'' Rome, École française de Rome, 1995. *Davis, Jennifer R. "Inventing the Missi. Delegating Power in the Late Eighth and Early Ninth Centuries." In ''The ʿAbbasid and Carolingian Empires. Comparative Studies in Civilizational Formation'', ed. Tor D.G., Brill, 2017. 13-51. *de Clercq, Charles. ''Neuf capitulaires de Charlemagne concernant son œuvre réformatrice par les « Missi »'' Milano, 1968 *Depreux, Philippe. "L’absence de jugement datant du règne de Louis le Pieux: l’expression d’un mode de gouvernement reposant plus systématiquement sur le recours aux missi." ''Annales de Bretagne et des Pays de l'Ouest'' 108:1, (2001): 7-20. *Eckhardt, Wilhelm A. "Die Capitularia missorum specialia von 802." ''Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters'' 12 (1956):498-516 * Ganshof, François Louis ''Frankish Institutions under Charlemagne'' (tr. Bryce and Mary Lyons). Providence (Rhode Island), 1968. 566–7 and 14-20. *Gravel, Martin. "Du rôle des missi impériaux dans la supervision de la vie chrétienne. Témoignage d’une collection de capitulaires du début du IXe siècle." ''Memini. Travaux et documents'' 11, (2007): 99-130. *Grunin, Andrey. "Réseau politique des agents du pouvoir central: l'exemple des missi dominici." ''Journal of Interdisciplinary Methodologies and Issues in Science'' 5 (2019):1-35. *Hannig, Jürgen. "''Pauperiores de infra palatio?'' Zur Entstehung der karolingischen Königbotenorganisation." '' MIÖG'' 91 (1983): 309–74. *Hannig, Jürgen. "Zentrale Kontrolle und regionale Machtbalance: Beobachtungen zum System der karolingischen Königsboten am Beispiel des Mittelrheingebietes." ''Archiv für Kulturgeschichte'' 66:1 (1984):1-46. *Hannig, Jürgen. "Zur Funktion der karolingischen «missi dominici» in Bayern und in den südöstlichen Grenzgebieten." ''Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte, Germanistische Abteilung'' 101 (1984):256-300. *Kaiser, Reinhold. "Les évêques de Langres dans leur fonction de Missi dominici." In ''Aux origines d'une seigneurie ecclésiastique. Langres et ses évêques VIIIe-XIe siècles.'' Langres, 1986. 91-113 *Kikuchi, Shigeto. ''Untersuchungen zu den Missi dominici. Herrschaft, Delegation und Kommunikation in der Karolingerzeit''. (Doktorgrades der Philosophie), Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 2013. *Krause, Victor. "Geschichte des Instituts der ''missi dominici''." '' MIÖG'' 11 (1890). 193–300. *McKitterick, Rosamond. "Charlemagne's missi and their books." In ''Early medieval studies in memory of Patrick Wormald'', ed. S. Baxter, C. Karkov, J. Nelson, & D. Pelteret, Aldershot, 2009. 253-268. *Scior, Victor. "Bemerkungen zum frühmittelalterlichen Boten- und Gesandtschaftswesen". In ''Der frühmittelalterliche Staat – europäische Perspektiven'', ed. W. Pohl, V. Wieser, Wien, 2009. 315-331. . * Werner, Karl Ferdinand. “''Missus – Marchio – Comes''. Entre l'administration centrale et l'administration locale de l'Émpire carolingien.” In ''Histoire Comparée de l'administration (IVe-XVIIe siècles)'', ed. W. Paravicini and K.F. Werner. Beihefte der Francia 9. Munich, 1980. 191–239. Reprinted in ''Vom Frankenreich zur Entfaltung Deutschlands und Frankreichs. Ursprünge, Strukturen, Beziehungen; ausgewählte Beiträge; Festgabe zu seinem 60. Geburtstag'', ed. K.F. Werner. Sigmaringen, 1984. 108–56. .

Reign of Charlemagne

Reigns of Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald

Notes

Sources and external links

Further reading

See also