The Mille Lacs Indians (

Ojibwe The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an Anishinaabe people in what is currently southern Canada, the northern Midwestern United States, and Northern Plains. According to the U.S. census, in the United States Ojibwe people are one of ...

: ''Misi-zaaga'iganiwininiwag''), also known as the Mille Lacs and Snake River Band of Chippewa, are a Band of Indians formed from the unification of the Mille Lacs Band of

Mississippi Mississippi () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States, bordered to the north by Tennessee; to the east by Alabama; to the south by the Gulf of Mexico; to the southwest by Louisiana; and to the northwest by Arkansas. Miss ...

Chippewa (Ojibwe) with the Mille Lacs Band of

Mdewakanton The Mdewakanton or Mdewakantonwan (also spelled ''Mdewákhaŋthuŋwaŋ'' and currently pronounced ''Bdewákhaŋthuŋwaŋ'') are one of the sub-tribes of the Isanti (Santee) Dakota ( Sioux). Their historic home is Mille Lacs Lake (Dakota: ''Mde W� ...

Sioux The Sioux or Oceti Sakowin (; Dakota language, Dakota: Help:IPA, /otʃʰeːtʰi ʃakoːwĩ/) are groups of Native Americans in the United States, Native American tribes and First Nations in Canada, First Nations peoples in North America. The ...

(

Dakota Dakota may refer to: * Dakota people, a sub-tribe of the Sioux ** Dakota language, their language Dakota may also refer to: Places United States * Dakota, Georgia, an unincorporated community * Dakota, Illinois, a town * Dakota, Minnesota, ...

). Today, their successor apparent

Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe The Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe ( oj, Misi-zaaga'igani Anishinaabeg), also known as the Mille Lacs Band of Chippewa Indians, is a federally recognized American Indian tribe located in east-central Minnesota. The Band has 4,302 members as of 2012. ...

consider themselves as being Ojibwe, but many on their main reservation have the ''ma'iingan'' (wolf) as their chief

doodem The Anishinaabe, like most Algonquian-speaking groups in North America, base their system of kinship on patrilineal clans or totems. The Ojibwe word for clan () was borrowed into English as totem. The clans, based mainly on animals, were in ...

(clan), which is an indicator of Dakota origins. Mille Lacs Indians, because of their mixed Chippewa-Sioux heritage, have become the cultural lynch-pin linking the two former warring nations into a single people, providing Ojibwe culture and customs to the Dakota just as providing Dakota culture and customs to the Ojibwe. All of the drums held among the Mille Lacs Indians are of Dakota origins, singing Dakota melodies but translated into Ojibwe.

Historical component bands

Mille Lacs Band of Mdewakanton Dakota

Previous to Ojibwe settlement after their prophetic migration from the Atlantic coast, this area was occupied for centuries by the Bdewaḳanṭuŋwaŋ ("Mdewakanton") Dakota, the western sub-division of the Isanti Dakota. The Bdewaḳanṭuŋwaŋ lived primarily on the three ricing chain of lakes (Ogechie, Shakopee and Onamia) at the head-waters of the Rum River and along the southern and southwestern shores of Mille Lacs Lake (citation?). With the

Battle of Kathio The Battle of Kathio, or Battle of Izatys, was an oral tradition of the Chippewa reporting a battle fought in 1750 between Chippewas and the Sioux at the village of Kathio, or Izatys, on the Rum River next to Mille Lacs Lake. According to tr ...

, the Bdewaḳanṭuŋwaŋ were forced south and west. One independent historian has claimed that, despite resource access hardship due to conflicts between the Dakota and Ojibwe peoples, the Mille Lacs Band of Bdewaḳanṭuŋwaŋ Dakota remained in the area. According to this claim, a Dakota Council came to meet with the Ojibwe on terms of territorial control shifts, and the Mille Lacs Band of Bdewaḳanṭuŋwaŋ Dakota chose to remain and forgo their Dakota identity to become Ojibwe and remain at ''mde waḳaŋ'' (Spiritual/Mystic Lake). As Ojibwe, Mille Lacs Band of Bdewaḳanṭuŋwaŋ Dakota ensured the ceremonies associated with the Mille Lacs Lake were continued, forming the "Wolf Clan". This claim has, however, been refuted by Dakota and Anishinaabe tribal historians, and there is no documentation to support it.

Mille Lacs Band of Border-sitter Chippewa

Second group forming the Mille Lacs Indians were the Mille Lacs Band of Border-sitter Chippewa, Band of the Border-sitter sub-nation of the

Lake Superior Chippewa The Lake Superior Chippewa (Anishinaabe: Gichigamiwininiwag) are a large number of Ojibwe (Anishinaabe) bands living around Lake Superior; this territory is considered part of northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota in the United States. They ...

. The Mille Lacs Band of Border-sitter Chippewa were part of the western division of the Border-sitter Chippewa known as the ''Manoominikeshiinyag'' or the "Ricing Rails" or the "St. Croix Division". Mille Lacs Band of Border-sitter lived primarily along Groundhouse River, Ann River, Knife River (all located south of Mille Lacs Lake, and tributaries of the

Snake River The Snake River is a major river of the greater Pacific Northwest region in the United States. At long, it is the largest tributary of the Columbia River, in turn, the largest North American river that empties into the Pacific Ocean. The Snake ...

), the portage ways connecting these three rivers to Mille Lacs Lake and the Rum River, and along the southeastern shores of Mille Lacs Lake. This group already were a mixed Dakota-Ojibwe entity, identifying themselves equally as Dakota and as Ojibwe.

Mille Lacs Band of Mississippi Chippewa

Third group forming the Mille Lacs Indians were the Mille Lacs Band of Mississippi Chippewa, a band associated with the powerful

Mississippi Chippewa Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians ( oj, Gichi-ziibiwininiwag) or simply the Mississippi Chippewa, are a historical Ojibwa Band inhabiting the headwaters of the Mississippi River and its tributaries in present-day Minnesota. According to th ...

. Mille Lacs Band of Mississippi Chippewa lived primarily along Nokasippi River, Cedar River and Ripple River (all located north and northwest of Mille Lacs Lake), the portage ways connecting these three rivers to Mille Lacs Lake, and along the northwestern and northern shores of Mille Lacs Lake.

Pre-treaty period (c. 1750–1825)

The unification process among the three component historical bands began in ernest after the

in which the Mille Lacs Band of Mississippi Chippewa gained majority control of the

Mille Lacs Lake Mille Lacs Lake (also called Lake Mille Lacs or Mille Lacs) is a large but shallow lake in the U.S. state of Minnesota. It is located in the counties of Mille Lacs, Aitkin, and Crow Wing, roughly 75 miles north of the Minneapolis-St. Paul m ...

. In the Battle of Kathio, majority of the Dakota peoples were removed from the Mille Lacs Lake area and generally forced southward and westward from Lake. However, due to the sacredness of ''mde wáḳaŋ'' (Mille Lacs Lake), a peace council ending the territorial conflicts between the Ojibwe and Dakota was held on Mozomanie Point on the south end of the Lake, according to oral traditions, about 1750. At this peace council, the Ojibwe and the Dakota present were given a choice, where the Dakota peoples remaining would be peacefully incorporated as Ojibwe, but the Ojibwe would have to maintain all the rites associated with the Lake to maintain the sacredness of this body of water. In agreement, the Ojibwe learned all the Dakota ceremonial dances and songs over the course of the entire summer, while the remaining Dakota became "Ojibwe". As the distinct "Ojibwe" and "Dakota" identification no longer was appropriate, the unified entity became the ''Misi-zaaga'iganiwininiwag'' or the "Mille Lacs Indians". The traditional location for the joint council of the many sub-bands of the Mille Lacs Indians was maintained at ''Zaagawaamikaag-wiidwedong'' (or ''Zaagawaaming'', for short), just as it was with ''Mdewáḳaŋtuŋwaŋ Oyate'' before. ''Zaagawaaming'', recorded as "Sagawamick" or "Sagawahmick" in various

Bureau of Indian Affairs The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), also known as Indian Affairs (IA), is a United States federal agency within the Department of the Interior. It is responsible for implementing federal laws and policies related to American Indians and A ...

and

Bureau of American Ethnology The Bureau of American Ethnology (or BAE, originally, Bureau of Ethnology) was established in 1879 by an act of Congress for the purpose of transferring archives, records and materials relating to the Indians of North America from the Interior D ...

documents, still exists to this day but evolved into the Village of Lawrence and later as the City of Wahkon. However, with the establishment of the

, the center of tribal government shifted to north and west to

Vineland ''Vineland'' is a 1990 novel by Thomas Pynchon, a postmodern fiction set in California, United States in 1984, the year of Ronald Reagan's reelection.Knabb 2002 Through flashbacks by its characters, who have lived the sixties in their youth, th ...

Treaty period (1825–1871)

The Mille Lacs Indians entered the treaty period by sending Chief Nayquonabe (from the

''Negwanebi'', "'Tallest' uilleather") to the 1825 Council for the

First Treaty of Prairie du Chien The Treaty of Prairie du Chien may refer to any of several treaties made and signed in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin between the United States, representatives from the Sioux, Sac and Fox, Menominee, Ioway, Winnebago and the Anishinaabeg ( Chippew ...

(). Mille Lacs Indians participated in the 1826 Council for the

Treaty of Fond du Lac The Treaty of Fond du Lac may refer to either of two treaties made and signed in Duluth, Minnesota between the United States and the Ojibwe (Chippewa) Native American peoples. 1826 Treaty of Fond du Lac The first treaty of Fond du Lac was signe ...

. As part of the ''Biitan-akiing-enabijig'' Ojibwe, Mille Lacs Indians ceded great tract of land in Minnesota and Wisconsin in the 1837

Treaty of St. Peters Treaty of St. Peters may be one of two treaties conducted between the United States and Native American peoples, conducted at the confluence of the Minnesota River (then called "St. Peters River") with the Mississippi River, in what today is Me ...

(), but retained usufruct rights for hunting, fishing and gathering. As part of the Mdewakanton Dakota, Mille Lacs Indians ceded lands in the 1837 Treaty of Washington. Together with the

, the Mille Lacs Indians ceded lands in northern Wisconsin and western Upper Peninsula of Michigan in the 1842

Treaty of La Pointe The Treaty of La Pointe may refer to either of two treaties made and signed in La Pointe, Wisconsin between the United States and the Ojibwe (Chippewa) Native American peoples. In addition, the Isle Royale Agreement, an adhesion to the first Trea ...

, then in central Minnesota in the 1847

. Together with the

Pillager Chippewa Pillager Band of Chippewa Indians (or simply the Pillagers; in the Ojibwe language) are a historical band of Chippewa (Ojibwe) who settled at the headwaters of the Mississippi River in present-day Minnesota. Their name "Pillagers" is a translatio ...

s and other

s in the 1855 Treaty of Washington (), Mille Lacs Indians ceded large tract of land in northern Minnesota, excluding the

Arrowhead Region The Arrowhead Region is located in the northeastern part of the U.S. state of Minnesota, so called because of its pointed shape. The predominantly rural region encompasses of land area and includes Carlton, Cook, Lake and Saint Louis counties. ...

(which its claim was rescinded in the 1854

) and the northwesternmost corner of Minnesota; in exchange, the Mille Lacs Indian reserved for themselves the south shore of

, becoming the

Mille Lacs Indian Reservation Mille Lacs Indian Reservation is the popular name for the land-base for the Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe in Central Minnesota, about 100 miles (160 km) north of Minneapolis-St. Paul. The contemporary Mille Lacs Band reservation has significant ...

. However, as this land reserved was previously ceded to the United States in the 1837 Treaty of St. Peters, this caused a dispute between the lumbermen in the area and the Mille Lacs Indians. As the lumbermen had constructed a dam in Ericksonville, nd that location near the outlet of Lake Onamia was called ''Gibakwa'iganiing'' (By the Dam) or ''Gibakwa'igaansing'' (By the Little Dam) by the Ojibweto regulate the water flow of the Rum River for floating logs down the river, but the damming of the water threatened the wild rice in Lake Onamia, the Mille Lacs Indians removed the dam. This became the first court case for the Mille Lacs Indians, in 1856, the US Supreme Court judged in favor of the tribe. HoleInTheDay1858

With the

Dakota War of 1862 The Dakota War of 1862, also known as the Sioux Uprising, the Dakota Uprising, the Sioux Outbreak of 1862, the Dakota Conflict, the U.S.-Dakota War of 1862, or Little Crow's War, was an armed conflict between the United States and several ban ...

, many Chippewa Bands aided the Dakota people. When Mille Lacs Indians Chief ''Máza-mani'' (Iron-Walker) learned of the plans of Gull Lake Band Chief '' Bagonegiizhig'' (Hole in the Day) to attack Fort Ripley, Chief ''Máza-mani'' raised a party of 200 men and they set out to aid the fort in advance, thus averting Chief ''Bagonegiizhig''s attack on the fort. In the 1863 Treaty of Washington () and again in 1864 (), while most all other Chippewa Bands were being forced to relocate due to their aid to the

Dakota people The Dakota (pronounced , Dakota language: ''Dakȟóta/Dakhóta'') are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government in North America. They compose two of the three main subcultures of the Sioux people, and are typically divided into ...

, Mille Lacs Indians, due to their aid to the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...

, were not. As stated in the Treaties, "That owing to the heretofore good conduct of the Mille Lac Indians, they shall not be compelled to remove so long as they shall not in any way interfere with or in any manner molest the property of persons of the whites."

Post-treaty period (1872–1936)

When the

White Earth Indian Reservation The White Earth Indian Reservation ( oj, Gaa-waabaabiganikaag, "Where there is an abundance of white clay") is the home to the White Earth Band, located in northwestern Minnesota. It is the largest Indian reservation in the state by land area. T ...

was established, like the rest of the Mississippi Chippewa, the Mille Lacs Indians were also encouraged to relocate. Many Mille Lacs Indians became homeless so under , homesteading and cemetery lands were secured for the Mille Lacs Indians. After the signing of the "An act for the relief and civilization of the Chippewa Indians in the State of Minnesota" (51st-1st-Ex.Doc.247) and a removal bill on May 27, 1902, many Mille Lacs Indians did remove themselves to the White Earth Inidan Reserveration, becoming the Removable Mille Lacs Band. Others remained on the

, becoming the Non-removable Mille Lacs Band. Within few years, many of the Removable Mille Lacs Band left White Earth and returned to Mille Lacs, splitting the group onto two separate Indian Reservations. When the BIA asked for a consultation council to be held in

Hayward, Wisconsin Hayward is a city in Sawyer County, Wisconsin, United States, next to the Namekagon River. The population was 2,318 at the 2010 census. It is the county seat of Sawyer County. The city is surrounded by the Town of Hayward. History Early h ...

, regards to the 1934

Indian Reorganization Act The Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of June 18, 1934, or the Wheeler–Howard Act, was U.S. federal legislation that dealt with the status of American Indians in the United States. It was the centerpiece of what has been often called the "Indian ...

, Mille Lacs Indians sent delegates there without signature authority to gather information. When the

Minnesota Chippewa Tribe The Minnesota Chippewa Tribe (MCT) is the centralized governmental authority for six Chippewa (Ojibwe or Anishinaabe) bands in the U.S. state of Minnesota. The tribe was created on June 18, 1934; the organization and its governmental powers are ...

was established in 1936 under the authority of the Indian Reorganization Act, the Non-removable and Removable Mille Lacs Bands of the Mille Lacs Indians became the core Band of the

, joined together with the Non-removable

Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa Sandy Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa (Ojibwe: ''Gaa-mitaawangaagamaag-ininiwag'') are a historical Ojibwa tribe located in the upper Mississippi River basin, on and around Big Sandy Lake in what today is in Aitkin County, Minnesota. Though pol ...

Rice Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly ''Oryza glaberrima'' (African rice). The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera ''Zizania'' and ''Porteresia'', both wild and domesticated, ...

, and the communities of the St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Minnesota.

Notable Mille Lacs Indians

* ''Adik'' ("Reindeer", recorded as "A-dick") * ''Akiwenziinh'' ("Old Man", recorded as "Aw-ke-wain-ze"), brave * ''Akogwan'' ("Deep olouredFeather", recorded as "A-ko-gwan"), chief * ''Awan'' ("Fog", recorded as "A-wun") * ''Ayizhi'indang'' ("He is Encouraged", recorded as "A-ya-shin-ting") * ''Ayaabe'' ("Buck", recorded as "Ai-a-be"), chief * ''Aanji-bines'' ("Changing Bird", recorded as "Aun-che-be-nos"), second warrior * ''Aazhoo'' ("Distant alk, Called Chinaman, recorded as "A-zhu"), cultural informant * ''Badagwigiizhig'' ("All loud-overed Sky", recorded as "Bu-dub-i-gi-zhig") * ''Bwaanens'' ("Little Sioux", recorded as "Bwan-ens"), cultural informant * ''Biidwaabanookwe'' ("Peep o' Dawn", recorded as "Bi-da-bun-o-que") * ''Debab'' ("Sit Enough", recorded as "De-dub"), cultural informant * ''Debas'' ("Dodger", recorded as "De-bus"), cultural informant * ''Debwe'' (" e who Tells theTruth", recorded as "Deb-we"), cultural informant * ''Edawi-giizhig'' ("Both Ends of the Sky", recorded as "Ad-a-we-ge-shik"), warrior * ''Eshpaan'' ("Great Height", recorded as "Aish-pun"), head man * ''Gaagige-aanakwadweb'' (" its on anEverlasting Cloud", recorded as "Ka-gi-ge-an-a-quut-web") * ''Gaa-giizhitang'' ("Finished", recorded as "Ga-ki-zhi-tung") * ''Gegwedose'' ("Try Walking", recorded as "Gay-gway-do-say") * ''Gekekwab'' (" itting on aSparrow

awk AWK (''awk'') is a domain-specific language designed for text processing and typically used as a data extraction and reporting tool. Like sed and grep, it is a filter, and is a standard feature of most Unix-like operating systems. The AWK lang ...

, recorded as "Ka-ka-quap"), warrior * ''Gichi-bine'' ("Big Quail", recorded as "Ki-chi-bin-e") * ''Gidagigwan'' ("Spotted Feather", recorded as "Ge-tug-i-gwun") * ''Gimiwan-aanakwad'' ("Rain Cloud", recorded as "Ge-me-wan-na-na-quad") * ''Gii-niizh'' ("Two'd", recorded as "Gi-nizh") * ''Ishkwaandem'' ("Door", recorded as "Ish-guam-den") * ''Ishpiming'' ("Heaven", recorded as "Ish-pi-ming") * ''Iinzan'' ("Apparently", recorded as "In-zahn"), chief * ''Jiichiibizens'' ("He who Quakes Little, recorded as "Chi-bi-zains"), cultural informant * ''Jiingogaabaw'' ("Who Shakes he Earthby Standing", recorded as "Ching-o-ga-bow"), cultural informant * ''Makode ("Bear's Heart", recorded as "Mah-ko-dah"), first warrior * ''Manoominikeshiinh'' ("Ricing Rail", recorded as "Mun-o-min-e-kay-shein, Ricemaker"), chief * ''Máza-mani ("Iron-walker" (Dakota name), recorded as "Mo-zo-man-e, Many Moose"), chief * ''Migizi'' ("Bald Eagle", recorded as "Mee-gee-zee"), chief * ''Mino-giizhig'' ("Fine Day", recorded as "Me-no-ke-shick") * ''Negwanebi'' ("'Tallest' uilleather" or "Feather's End", recorded as "Nay-quon-a(y)-be", "Na-gwun-a-bee" or "Na-gwa-na-be"), chief * ''Ozaawandib'' ("Yellow Head", recorded as "O-za-wan-dib"), chief * ''Pítad'' (" orsel ofMuskrat-liver" (Dakota name), recorded as "Be-dud"), warrior * ''Wazhashkokon'' ("

usk Usk ( cy, Brynbuga) is a town and community in Monmouthshire, Wales, northeast of Newport. It is located on the River Usk, which is spanned by an arched stone bridge at the western entrance to the town. Usk Castle, above the town, overlooks th ...

at's Liver", recorded as "Wa-shask-ko-kone"), chief * ''Zaagajiw'' ("Comes out of the Mountain", recorded as "Sa-gutch-u"), chief * ''Zhaaboshkang'' ("He who Passes Through", recorded as "Shaw-bosh-kung"), chief

References

External links

Rights and Equities of Mille Lac Indians in and to the Mille Lac Reservation (60th-1st-Ex.Doc.247)"Mille Lac Indian Lands Act of January 14, 1889" in ''Decisions of the Department of the Interior and General Land Office in Cases Relating to the Public Lands''. Vol. 12, pp.52-56. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1891)''Mille Lacs Band of Chippewa Indians v. Minnesota'' (1994)
{{authority control Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe Ojibwe in Minnesota Native American tribes in Minnesota Native American history of Minnesota Mille Lacs County, Minnesota