A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for
warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a
sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct
military uniform. It may consist of one or more
military branch
Military branch (also service branch or armed service) is according to common standard a subdivision of the national armed forces of a sovereign nation or state.
Types of branches
Unified armed forces
The Canadian Armed Forces is the uni ...
es such as an
army,
navy,
air force,
space force
A space force is a military branch of a nation's armed forces that conducts military operations in outer space and space warfare. The world's first space force was the Russian Space Forces, established in 1992 as an independent military service. ...
,
marines, or
coast guard. The main task of the military is usually defined as defence of the state and its interests against external armed threats.
In broad usage, the terms ''armed forces'' and ''military'' are often treated as synonymous, although in technical usage a distinction is sometimes made in which a country's armed forces may include both its military and other
paramilitary
A paramilitary is an organization whose structure, tactics, training, subculture, and (often) function are similar to those of a professional military, but is not part of a country's official or legitimate armed forces. Paramilitary units carr ...
forces. There are various forms of
irregular military forces, not belonging to a recognized state; though they share many attributes with regular military forces, they are less often referred to as simply ''military''.
![Countries by soldier count](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Countries_by_soldier_count.svg)
A nation's military may function as a discrete social
subculture
A subculture is a group of people within a culture that differentiates itself from the parent culture to which it belongs, often maintaining some of its founding principles. Subcultures develop their own norms and values regarding cultural, poli ...
, with dedicated infrastructure such as military housing, schools, utilities,
logistics, hospitals, legal services, food production, finance, and banking services. Beyond warfare, the military may be employed in additional sanctioned and non-sanctioned functions within the state, including internal security threats,
population control, the promotion of a
political agenda,
emergency service
Emergency services and rescue services are organizations that ensure public safety and health by addressing and resolving different emergencies. Some of these agencies exist solely for addressing certain types of emergencies, while others deal wit ...
s and reconstruction, protecting
corporate economic interests, social ceremonies and national honour guards.
The profession of
soldiering as part of a military is older than
recorded history itself. Some of the most enduring images of
classical antiquity portray the power and feats of its military
leaders. The
Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC was one of the defining points of Pharaoh
Ramses II's reign, and his monuments commemorate it in
bas-relief. A thousand years later, the first
emperor of unified China,
Qin Shi Huang, was so determined to impress the gods with his military might that he had himself buried with an army of
terracotta soldiers
The Terracotta Army is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE with the purpose of protecting the emperor in ...
.
[
Terra cotta of massed ranks of Qin Shi Huang's terra cotta soldiers
]
The
Romans paid considerable attention to military matters, leaving to posterity many
treatises and writings on the subject, as well as many lavishly carved
triumphal arches and
victory columns.
Etymology and definitions
The first recorded use of the word military in English, spelled , was in 1582.
It comes from the Latin ''militaris'' (from Latin ''miles'', meaning "soldier") through French, but is of uncertain etymology, one suggestion being derived from ''*mil-it-'' – going in a body or mass.
As a noun, the military usually refers generally to a country's armed forces, or sometimes, more specifically, to the senior officers who command them.
In general, it refers to the physicality of armed forces, their
personnel
Employment is a relationship between two parties regulating the provision of paid labour services. Usually based on a contract, one party, the employer, which might be a corporation, a not-for-profit organization, a co-operative, or any othe ...
,
equipment
Equipment most commonly refers to a set of tools or other objects commonly used to achieve a particular objective. Different job
Work or labor (or labour in British English) is intentional activity people perform to support the needs and ...
, and the physical area which they occupy.
As an adjective, military originally referred only to soldiers and soldiering, but it soon broadened to apply to land forces in general, and anything to do with their profession.
The names of both the
Royal Military Academy (1741) and
United States Military Academy (1802) reflect this. However, at about the time of the
Napoleonic Wars, 'military' began to be used in reference to armed forces as a whole, such as '
military service', '
military intelligence', and '
military history
Military history is the study of armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, cultures and economies thereof, as well as the resulting changes to local and international relationships.
Professional historians norma ...
'. As such, it now connotes any activity performed by armed force personnel.
History
![Riace bronzes - Statue A- Ancient Greek warrior](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Riace_bronzes_-_Statue_A-_Ancient_Greek_warrior.jpg)
Military history is often considered to be the history of all conflicts, not just the history of the state militaries. It differs somewhat from the
history of war
Military history is the study of armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, cultures and economies thereof, as well as the resulting changes to local and international relationships.
Professional historians norma ...
, with military history focusing on the people and institutions of war-making, while the history of war focuses on the evolution of war itself in the face of changing technology, governments, and geography.
Military history has a number of facets. One main facet is to learn from past accomplishments and mistakes, so as to more effectively wage war in the future. Another is to create a sense of
military tradition, which is used to create cohesive military forces. Still, another may be to learn to prevent wars more effectively. Human knowledge about the military is largely based on both recorded and
oral history
Oral history is the collection and study of historical information about individuals, families, important events, or everyday life using audiotapes, videotapes, or transcriptions of planned interviews. These interviews are conducted with people wh ...
of military conflicts (war), their participating
armies and
navies
A navy, naval force, or maritime force is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions. It includ ...
and, more recently,
air forces.
Organization
Personnel and units
Despite the growing importance of
military technology, military activity depends above all on people. For example, in 2000 the British Army declared: "Man is still the first weapon of war."
Rank and role
The military organization is characterized by a strict
command hierarchy
A command hierarchy is a group of people who carry out orders based on others' authority within the group. It can be viewed as part of a power structure, in which it is usually seen as the most vulnerable and also the most powerful part.
Milit ...
divided by
military rank, with ranks normally grouped (in descending order of authority) as
officers (e.g.
Colonel),
non-commissioned officer
A non-commissioned officer (NCO) is a military officer who has not pursued a commission. Non-commissioned officers usually earn their position of authority by promotion through the enlisted ranks. (Non-officers, which includes most or all enli ...
s (e.g.
Sergeant
Sergeant (abbreviated to Sgt. and capitalized when used as a named person's title) is a rank in many uniformed organizations, principally military and policing forces. The alternative spelling, ''serjeant'', is used in The Rifles and other uni ...
), and personnel at the lowest rank (e.g.
Private Soldier
A private is a soldier, usually with the lowest rank in many armies. Soldiers with the rank of Private may be conscripts or they may be professional (career) soldiers.
The term derives from the medieval term "private soldiers" (a term still us ...
). While senior officers make strategic decisions, subordinated military personnel (
soldiers,
sailors,
marines, or
airmen
An airman is a member of an air force or air arm of a nation's armed forces. In certain air forces, it can also refer to a specific enlisted rank. An airman can also be referred as a soldier in other definitions.
In civilian aviation usage, t ...
) fulfil them. Although rank titles vary by
military branch
Military branch (also service branch or armed service) is according to common standard a subdivision of the national armed forces of a sovereign nation or state.
Types of branches
Unified armed forces
The Canadian Armed Forces is the uni ...
and country, the rank hierarchy is common to all state armed forces worldwide.
In addition to their rank, personnel occupy one of many trade roles, which are often grouped according to the nature of the role's military tasks on combat operations:
combat
Combat ( French for ''fight'') is a purposeful violent conflict meant to physically harm or kill the opposition. Combat may be armed (using weapons) or unarmed ( not using weapons). Combat is sometimes resorted to as a method of self-defense, or ...
roles (e.g.
infantry),
combat support roles (e.g.
combat engineers), and
combat service support
The term combat service support (or CSS) is utilized by numerous military organizations throughout the world to describe entities that provide direct and indirect sustainment services to the groups that engage (or are potentially to be engaged) ...
roles (e.g. logistical support).
In the past, the armed forces of some Communist states, such as the Soviet Union, China and Albania, have attempted to abolish military ranks, but they were later reintroduced due to operational difficulties relating to
command and control.
Recruitment
Personnel may be
recruited or
conscripted, depending on the system chosen by the state. Most military personnel are males; the minority proportion of female personnel varies internationally (approximately 3% in India, 10% in the UK, 13% in Sweden, 16% in the US, and 27% in South Africa). While two-thirds of states now recruit or conscript only adults, as of 2017 50 states still relied partly on children under the age of 18 (usually aged 16 or 17) to staff their armed forces.
Whereas recruits who join as
officers tend to be
upwardly-mobile,
most enlisted personnel have a childhood background of relative
socio-economic deprivation.
[Brett, Rachel, and Irma Specht. Young Soldiers: Why They Choose to Fight. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004. ] For example, after the US suspended conscription in 1973, "the military disproportionately attracted African American men, men from lower-status socioeconomic backgrounds, men who had been in nonacademic high school programs, and men whose high school grades tended to be low".
However, a study released in 2020 on the socio-economic backgrounds of U.S. Armed Forces personnel suggests that they are at parity or slightly higher than the civilian population with respect to socio-economic indicators such as parental income, parental wealth and cognitive abilities. The study found that technological, tactical, operational and doctrinal changes have led to a change in the demand for personnel. Furthermore, the study suggests that the most disadvantaged socio-economic groups are less likely to meet the requirements of the modern U.S. military.
Obligations
The obligations of military employment are many. Full-time military employment normally requires a minimum period of service of several years; between two and six years is typical of armed forces in Australia, the UK and the US, for example, depending on role, branch, and rank.
Some armed forces allow a short
discharge
Discharge may refer to
Expel or let go
* Discharge, the act of firing a gun
* Discharge, or termination of employment, the end of an employee's duration with an employer
* Military discharge, the release of a member of the armed forces from serv ...
window, normally during training, when recruits may leave the armed force as of right.
Alternatively, part-time military employment, known as
reserve service, allows a recruit to maintain a civilian job while training under military discipline at weekends; he or she may be called out to
deploy on operations to supplement the full-time personnel complement. After leaving the armed forces, recruits may remain liable for compulsory return to full-time military employment in order to train or
deploy on operations.
Military law introduces offences not recognised by civilian courts, such as
absence without leave (AWOL), desertion, political acts,
malingering, behaving disrespectfully, and disobedience (see, for example,
offences against military law in the United Kingdom).
Penalties range from a summary
reprimand to imprisonment for several years following a
court martial.
Certain fundamental rights are also restricted or suspended, including the freedom of association (e.g. union organizing) and freedom of speech (speaking to the media).
Military personnel in some countries have a right of
conscientious objection if they believe an order is immoral or unlawful, or cannot in good conscience carry it out.
Personnel may be posted to bases in their home country or overseas, according to operational need, and may be deployed from those bases on
exercises or
operations
Operation or Operations may refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
* ''Operation'' (game), a battery-operated board game that challenges dexterity
* Operation (music), a term used in musical set theory
* ''Operations'' (magazine), Multi-Man ...
anywhere in the world. During peacetime, when military personnel are generally stationed in
garrison
A garrison (from the French ''garnison'', itself from the verb ''garnir'', "to equip") is any body of troops stationed in a particular location, originally to guard it. The term now often applies to certain facilities that constitute a mil ...
s or other permanent military facilities, they mostly conduct administrative tasks,
training and
education activities,
technology maintenance,
and recruitment.
Training
Initial training conditions recruits for the demands of military life, including preparedness to injure and kill other people, and to face mortal danger without fleeing. It is a physically and psychologically intensive process which
resocializes recruits for the unique nature of military demands. For example:
* Individuality is suppressed (e.g. by shaving the head of new recruits, issuing uniforms, denying privacy, and prohibiting the use of first names);
* Daily routine is tightly controlled (e.g. recruits must make their beds, polish boots, and stack their clothes in a certain way, and mistakes are punished);
* Continuous
stressors deplete psychological resistance to the demands of their instructors (e.g. depriving recruits of sleep, food, or shelter, shouting insults and giving orders intended to humiliate)
* Frequent punishments serve to condition group conformity and discourage poor performance;
* The disciplined drill instructor is presented as a role model of the ideal soldier.
Intelligence
The next requirement comes as a fairly basic need for the military to identify possible
threats it may be called upon to face. For this purpose, some of the commanding forces and other military, as well as often civilian personnel participate in identification of these threats. This is at once an organization, a system and a process collectively called
military intelligence (MI).
The difficulty in using military intelligence concepts and military intelligence methods is in the nature of the
secrecy
Secrecy is the practice of hiding information from certain individuals or groups who do not have the "need to know", perhaps while sharing it with other individuals. That which is kept hidden is known as the secret.
Secrecy is often controvers ...
of the information they seek, and the
clandestine nature that intelligence operatives work in obtaining what may be plans for a
conflict escalation
Conflict escalation is the process by which conflicts grow in severity or scale over time. That may refer to conflicts between individuals or groups in interpersonal relationships, or it may refer to the escalation of hostilities in a political or ...
,
initiation of combat, or an
invasion.
An important part of the military intelligence role is the military analysis performed to assess
military capability of potential future aggressors, and provide combat modelling that helps to understand factors on which comparison of forces can be made. This helps to quantify and qualify such statements as: "
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
and
India maintain the largest armed forces in the World" or that "the
U.S. Military
The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States. The armed forces consists of six service branches: the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, Space Force, and Coast Guard. The president of the United States is the ...
is considered to be the world's strongest".
![Simple guerrilla organization](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Simple_guerrilla_organization.svg)
Although some groups engaged in combat, such as militants or
resistance movements, refer to themselves using military terminology, notably 'Army' or 'Front', none have had the structure of a national military to justify the reference, and usually have had to rely on support of outside national militaries. They also use these terms to conceal from the MI their true capabilities, and to impress potential ideological recruits.
Having military intelligence representatives participate in the execution of the national defence policy is important, because it becomes the first respondent and commentator on the policy expected
strategic goal, compared to the realities of
identified threats. When the intelligence reporting is compared to the policy, it becomes possible for the national leadership to consider allocating resources over and above the officers and their subordinates military pay, and the expense of maintaining military facilities and military support services for them.
Economics
Defense economics is the financial and monetary efforts made to resource and sustain militaries, and to finance
military operations, including war.
The process of allocating resources is conducted by determining a
military budget, which is administered by a military finance organization within the military. Military procurement is then authorized to purchase or contract provision of goods and services to the military, whether in peacetime at a permanent base, or in a combat zone from local population.
File:Military Expenditures by Country 2019.svg, A pie chart showing global military expenditures by country for 2019, in US$ billions, according to SIPRI
File:Military Expenditures as percent of GDP 2017.png, Map of military expenditures as a percentage of GDP by country, 2017.
File:2014 militrary expenditures absolute.svg, Military expenditure of 2014 in USD
Capability development
Capability development, which is often referred to as the military 'strength', is arguably one of the most complex activities known to humanity; because it requires determining: strategic, operational, and tactical capability requirements to counter the identified threats; strategic,
operational, and tactical doctrines by which the acquired capabilities will be used; identifying concepts, methods, and systems involved in executing the doctrines; creating design specifications for the manufacturers who would produce these in adequate quantity and quality for their use in combat; purchase the concepts, methods, and systems; create a forces structure that would use the concepts, methods, and systems most effectively and efficiently; integrate these concepts, methods, and systems into the force structure by providing
military education,
training, and
practice
Practice or practise may refer to:
Education and learning
* Practice (learning method), a method of learning by repetition
* Phantom practice, phenomenon in which a person's abilities continue to improve, even without practicing
* Practice-based ...
that preferably resembles combat environment of intended use; create
military logistics
Military logistics is the discipline of planning and carrying out the movement, supply, and maintenance of military forces. In its most comprehensive sense, it is those aspects or military operations that deal with:
* Design, development, acqui ...
systems to allow continued and uninterrupted performance of
military organization
Military organization or military organisation is the structuring of the armed forces of a state so as to offer such military capability as a national defense policy may require. In some countries paramilitary forces are included in a nation ...
s under combat conditions, including provision of health services to the personnel, and maintenance for the equipment; the services to assist recovery of wounded personnel, and repair of damaged equipment; and finally, post-conflict
demobilization
Demobilization or demobilisation (see spelling differences) is the process of standing down a nation's armed forces from combat-ready status. This may be as a result of victory in war, or because a crisis has been peacefully resolved and militar ...
, and disposal of war stocks surplus to peacetime requirements.
Development of
military doctrine
Military doctrine is the expression of how military forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements.
It is a guide to action, rather than being hard and fast rules. Doctrine provides a common frame of reference across ...
is perhaps the most important of all capability development activities, because it determines how military forces are used in conflicts, the concepts and methods used by the command to employ appropriately military skilled,
armed and
equipped personnel in achievement of the tangible goals and objectives of the
war,
campaign,
battle, engagement, and action.
[Dupuy, T.N. (1990) ''Understanding war: History and Theory of combat'', Leo Cooper, London, p. 67] The line between strategy and tactics is not easily blurred, although deciding which is being discussed had sometimes been a matter of personal judgement by some commentators, and military historians. The use of forces at the level of organization between strategic and tactical is called
operational mobility.
Science
Because most of the concepts and methods used by the military, and many of its systems are not found in commercial branches, much of the material is researched, designed, developed, and offered for inclusion in
arsenal
An arsenal is a place where arms and ammunition are made, maintained and repaired, stored, or issued, in any combination, whether privately or publicly owned. Arsenal and armoury (British English) or armory (American English) are mostly ...
s by
military science
Military science is the study of military processes, institutions, and behavior, along with the study of warfare, and the theory and application of organized coercive force. It is mainly focused on theory, method, and practice of producing mil ...
organizations within the overall structure of the military. Military scientists are therefore found to interact with all Arms and Services of the armed forces, and at all levels of the military hierarchy of command.
Although concerned with research into
military psychology, particularly
combat stress
Combat stress reaction (CSR) is acute behavioral disorganization as a direct result of the trauma of war. Also known as "combat fatigue", "battle fatigue", or "battle neurosis", it has some overlap with the diagnosis of acute stress reaction used ...
and how it affect troop
morale, often the bulk of military science activities is directed at military intelligence technology,
military communications
Military communications or military signals involve all aspects of communications, or conveyance of information, by armed forces. Military communications span from pre-history to the present. The earliest military communications were delivered b ...
, and improving
military capability through research. The design, development, and prototyping of
weapons, military support equipment, and
military technology in general, is also an area in which much effort is invested – it includes everything from global communication networks and
aircraft carrier
An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the capital ship of a fleet, as it allows a ...
s to paint and food.
Logistics
![Convoy Red Ball Express](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Convoy_Red_Ball_Express.jpg)
Possessing military capability is not sufficient if this capability cannot be deployed for, and employed in combat operations. To achieve this,
military logistics
Military logistics is the discipline of planning and carrying out the movement, supply, and maintenance of military forces. In its most comprehensive sense, it is those aspects or military operations that deal with:
* Design, development, acqui ...
are used for the
logistics management and logistics planning of the forces
military supply chain management, the consumables, and capital equipment of the troops.
Although mostly concerned with the
military transport, as a means of delivery using different modes of transport; from
military truck
A military vehicle is any vehicle for land-based military transport and activity, including combat vehicles; both specifically designed for, or significantly used by military and armed forces. Most military vehicles require off-road capabilitie ...
s, to
container ships operating from permanent
military base, it also involves creating field supply dumps at the rear of the
combat
Combat ( French for ''fight'') is a purposeful violent conflict meant to physically harm or kill the opposition. Combat may be armed (using weapons) or unarmed ( not using weapons). Combat is sometimes resorted to as a method of self-defense, or ...
zone, and even forward supply points in specific unit's
Tactical Area of Responsibility.
These supply points are also used to provide
military engineering
Military engineering is loosely defined as the art, science, and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and military communications. Military engineers are also responsible for logistics be ...
services, such as the recovery of defective and derelict vehicles and weapons, maintenance of weapons in the field, the repair and field modification of weapons and equipment; and in peacetime, the life-extension programmes undertaken to allow continued use of equipment. One of the most important role of logistics is the supply of
munition
Ammunition (informally ammo) is the material fired, scattered, dropped, or detonated from any weapon or weapon system. Ammunition is both expendable weapons (e.g., bombs, missiles, grenades, land mines) and the component parts of other weapo ...
s as a primary type of consumable, their storage, and
disposal.
In combat
The primary reason for the existence of the military is to engage in
combat
Combat ( French for ''fight'') is a purposeful violent conflict meant to physically harm or kill the opposition. Combat may be armed (using weapons) or unarmed ( not using weapons). Combat is sometimes resorted to as a method of self-defense, or ...
, should it be required to do so by the national defence policy, and to win. This represents an organisational goal of any military, and the primary focus for military thought through
military history
Military history is the study of armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, cultures and economies thereof, as well as the resulting changes to local and international relationships.
Professional historians norma ...
. How
victory is achieved, and what shape it assumes, is studied by most, if not all, military groups on three levels.
Strategic victory
Military strategy
Military strategy is a set of ideas implemented by military organizations to pursue desired strategic goals. Derived from the Greek word '' strategos'', the term strategy, when it appeared in use during the 18th century, was seen in its narrow s ...
is the management of forces in
wars and
military campaign
A military campaign is large-scale long-duration significant military strategy plan incorporating a series of interrelated military operations or battles forming a distinct part of a larger conflict often called a war. The term derives from the ...
s by a
commander-in-chief, employing large military forces, either national and allied as a whole, or the component elements of
armies,
navies
A navy, naval force, or maritime force is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions. It includ ...
and
air forces; such as
army group
An army group is a military organization consisting of several field armies, which is self-sufficient for indefinite periods. It is usually responsible for a particular geographic area. An army group is the largest field organization handled by ...
s,
naval fleets, and large numbers of
aircraft. Military strategy is a long-term projection of belligerents' policy, with a broad view of outcome implications, including outside the concerns of military command. Military strategy is more concerned with the
supply of war and planning, than management of field forces and combat between them. The scope of strategic military planning can span weeks, but is more often months or even years.
Operational victory
Operational mobility is, within
warfare and
military doctrine
Military doctrine is the expression of how military forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements.
It is a guide to action, rather than being hard and fast rules. Doctrine provides a common frame of reference across ...
, the level of command which coordinates the minute details of
tactics with the overarching goals of
strategy
Strategy (from Greek στρατηγία ''stratēgia'', "art of troop leader; office of general, command, generalship") is a general plan to achieve one or more long-term or overall goals under conditions of uncertainty. In the sense of the "art ...
. A common synonym is operational art.
The operational level is at a scale bigger than one where line of sight and the time of day are important, and smaller than the strategic level, where production and politics are considerations. Formations are of the operational level if they are able to conduct operations on their own, and are of sufficient size to be directly handled or have a significant impact at the strategic level. This concept was pioneered by the
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
**Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ger ...
army prior to and during the
Second World War. At this level, planning and duration of activities takes from one week to a month, and are executed by
Field Armies
A field army (or numbered army or simply army) is a military formation in many armed forces, composed of two or more corps and may be subordinate to an army group. Likewise, air armies are equivalent formation within some air forces, and withi ...
and
Army Corps and their naval and air equivalents.
Tactical victory
Military tactics
Military tactics encompasses the art of organizing and employing fighting forces on or near the battlefield. They involve the application of four battlefield functions which are closely related – kinetic or firepower, Mobility (military), mobil ...
concerns itself with the methods for engaging and defeating the enemy in direct combat. Military tactics are usually used by units over hours or days, and are focused on the specific tasks and objectives of
squadrons,
companies,
battalions,
regiments,
brigades, and
divisions, and their naval and air force equivalents.
One of the oldest military publications is ''
The Art of War'', by the
Chinese philosopher
Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period () and Warring States period (), during a period known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought", which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developmen ...
Sun Tzu. Written in the 6th century BCE, the 13-chapter book is intended as military instruction, and not as
military theory, but has had a huge influence on Asian military doctrine, and from the late 19th century, on European and United States
military planning. It has even been used to formulate business tactics, and can even be applied in social and political areas.
![Macedonian battle formation-en](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Macedonian_battle_formation-en.svg)
The Classical Greeks and the Romans wrote prolifically on
military campaign
A military campaign is large-scale long-duration significant military strategy plan incorporating a series of interrelated military operations or battles forming a distinct part of a larger conflict often called a war. The term derives from the ...
ing. Among the best-known Roman works are
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and ...
's commentaries on the
Gallic Wars, and the
Roman Civil war – written about 50 BC.
Two major works on tactics come from the late Roman period: ''Taktike Theoria'' by
Aelianus Tacticus, and ''
De Re Militari
''De re militari'' (Latin "Concerning Military Matters"), also ''Epitoma rei militaris'', is a treatise by the Late Latin writer Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus about Roman warfare and military principles as a presentation of the methods and pr ...
'' ('On military matters') by
Vegetius. ''Taktike Theoria'' examined Greek military tactics, and was most influential in the
Byzantine world and during the
Golden Age of Islam
The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic, and scientific flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 14th century. This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign ...
.
''De Re Militari'' formed the basis of European military tactics until the late 17th century. Perhaps its most enduring maxim is
''Igitur qui desiderat pacem, praeparet bellum'' (let he who desires peace prepare for war).
Due to the changing nature of combat with the introduction of
artillery in the European
Middle Ages, and infantry firearms in the
Renaissance, attempts were made to define and identify those strategies,
grand tactics
In the field of military theory, the operational level of war (also called operational art, as derived from russian: оперативное искусство, or operational warfare) represents the level of command that connects the details of ...
, and tactics that would produce a victory more often than that achieved by the Romans in praying to the gods before the battle.
Later this became known as
military science
Military science is the study of military processes, institutions, and behavior, along with the study of warfare, and the theory and application of organized coercive force. It is mainly focused on theory, method, and practice of producing mil ...
, and later still, would adopt the
scientific method approach to the conduct of military operations under the influence of the
Industrial Revolution thinking. In his seminal book ''
On War'', the
Prussian
Major-General and leading
expert
An expert is somebody who has a broad and deep understanding and competence in terms of knowledge, skill and experience through practice and education in a particular field. Informally, an expert is someone widely recognized as a reliable s ...
on modern
military strategy
Military strategy is a set of ideas implemented by military organizations to pursue desired strategic goals. Derived from the Greek word '' strategos'', the term strategy, when it appeared in use during the 18th century, was seen in its narrow s ...
,
Carl von Clausewitz defined military strategy as 'the employment of battles to gain the end of war'. According to Clausewitz:
strategy forms the plan of the War, and to this end it links together the series of acts which are to lead to the final decision, that is to say, it makes the plans for the separate campaigns and regulates the combats to be fought in each.
Hence, Clausewitz placed political aims above
military goals, ensuring
civilian control of the military. Military strategy was one of a triumvirate of '
arts' or 'sciences' that governed the conduct of warfare, the others being:
military tactics
Military tactics encompasses the art of organizing and employing fighting forces on or near the battlefield. They involve the application of four battlefield functions which are closely related – kinetic or firepower, Mobility (military), mobil ...
, the execution of plans and
manoeuvring of forces in battle, and maintenance of an army.
The meaning of military tactics has changed over time; from the deployment and manoeuvring of entire land armies on the fields of ancient battles, and galley fleets; to modern use of small unit
ambushes,
encirclements,
bombardment attacks,
frontal assaults,
air assault
Air assault is the movement of ground-based military forces by vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft—such as the helicopter—to seize and hold key terrain which has not been fully secured, and to directly engage enemy forces behind e ...
s,
hit-and-run tactics
Hit-and-run tactics are a tactical doctrine of using short surprise attacks, withdrawing before the enemy can respond in force, and constantly maneuvering to avoid full engagement with the enemy. The purpose is not to decisively defeat the ene ...
used mainly by
guerrilla forces, and, in some cases,
suicide attack
A suicide attack is any violent Strike (attack), attack, usually entailing the attacker detonating an explosive, where the attacker has suicide, accepted their own death as a direct result of the attacking method used. Suicide attacks have oc ...
s on land and at sea. Evolution of
aerial warfare
Aerial warfare is the use of military aircraft and other flying machines in warfare. Aerial warfare includes bombers attacking enemy installations or a concentration of enemy troops or strategic targets; fighter aircraft battling for control o ...
introduced its own
air combat tactics. Often,
military deception
Military deception (MILDEC) is an attempt by a military unit to gain an advantage during warfare by misleading adversary decision makers into taking action or inaction that creates favorable conditions for the deceiving force. This is usually ac ...
, in the form of
military camouflage or misdirection using
decoys, is used to confuse the enemy as a tactic.
A major development in
infantry tactics came with the increased use of
trench warfare in the 19th and 20th centuries. This was mainly employed in
World War I in the
Gallipoli campaign, and the
Western Front Western Front or West Front may refer to:
Military frontiers
*Western Front (World War I), a military frontier to the west of Germany
*Western Front (World War II), a military frontier to the west of Germany
*Western Front (Russian Empire), a majo ...
. Trench warfare often turned to a stalemate, only broken by a large loss of life, because, in order to attack an enemy entrenchment, soldiers had to run through an exposed '
no man's land
No man's land is waste or unowned land or an uninhabited or desolate area that may be under dispute between parties who leave it unoccupied out of fear or uncertainty. The term was originally used to define a contested territory or a dump ...
' under heavy fire from their opposing entrenched enemy.
Technology
![Arrow-head Olynthus BM GR1912](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Arrow-head_Olynthus_BM_GR1912.4-19.4.jpg)
As with any occupation, since the ancient times, the military has been distinguished from other members of the society by their tools, the military weapons, and
military equipment
A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct ...
used in combat. When
Stone Age
The Stone Age was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make tools with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted for roughly 3.4 million years, and ended between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC, with t ...
humans first took a sliver of flint to tip the
spear, it was the first example of
applying technology to improve the weapon.
Since then, the advances made by human societies, and that of weapons, has been irretrievably linked. Stone weapons gave way to
Bronze Age weapons, and later, the
Iron Age weapons. With each technological change, was realized some tangible increase in military capability, such as through greater effectiveness of a sharper edge in defeating
leather armour
Armour (British English) or armor (American English; see spelling differences) is a covering used to protect an object, individual, or vehicle from physical injury or damage, especially direct contact weapons or projectiles during combat, or fr ...
, or
improved density of materials used in manufacture of weapons.
On
land, the first really significant technological advance in warfare was the development of the
ranged weapon
A ranged weapon is any weapon that can engage targets beyond hand-to-hand distance, i.e. at distances greater than the physical reach of the user holding the weapon itself. The act of using such a weapon is also known as shooting. It is someti ...
s, and notably, the
sling
sling may refer to:
Places
*Sling, Anglesey, Wales
*Sling, Gloucestershire, England, a small village in the Forest of Dean
People with the name
* Otto Šling (1912–1952), repressed Czech communist functionary
Arts, entertainment, and media
* ...
. The next significant advance came with the
domestication of the horses and mastering of
equestrianism
Equestrianism (from Latin , , , 'horseman', 'horse'), commonly known as horse riding (Commonwealth English) or horseback riding (American English), includes the disciplines of riding, Driving (horse), driving, and Equestrian vaulting, vaulting ...
.
Arguably, the greatest invention that affected not just the military, but all society, after adoption of fire, was the
wheel
A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle Bearing (mechanical), bearing. The wheel is one of the key components of the wheel and axle which is one of the Simple machine, six simple machines. Wheels, in conjunction wi ...
, and its use in the construction of the
chariot
A chariot is a type of cart driven by a charioteer, usually using horses to provide rapid motive power. The oldest known chariots have been found in burials of the Sintashta culture in modern-day Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia, dated to c. 2000&nbs ...
. There were no advances in military technology, until, from the mechanical arm action of a slinger, the
Greeks,
Egyptians
Egyptians ( arz, المَصرِيُون, translit=al-Maṣriyyūn, ; arz, المَصرِيِين, translit=al-Maṣriyyīn, ; cop, ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, remenkhēmi) are an ethnic group native to the Nile, Nile Valley in Egypt. Egyptian ...
,
Romans,
Persians,
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
, etc., developed the
siege engines. The
bow was manufactured in increasingly larger and more powerful versions, to increase both the weapon range, and armour penetration performance. These developed into the powerful composite and recurve bows, and crossbows of
Ancient China
The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the '' Book of Documents'' (early chapte ...
. These proved particularly useful during the rise of cavalry, as horsemen encased in ever-more sophisticated
armour
Armour (British English) or armor (American English; see spelling differences) is a covering used to protect an object, individual, or vehicle from physical injury or damage, especially direct contact weapons or projectiles during combat, or fr ...
came to dominate the battlefield.
Somewhat earlier, in medieval China,
gunpowder had been invented, and was increasingly used by the military in combat. The use of gunpowder in the early
vase-like mortars in Europe, and advanced versions of the
long bow and
cross bow
A crossbow is a ranged weapon using an elastic launching device consisting of a bow-like assembly called a ''prod'', mounted horizontally on a main frame called a ''tiller'', which is hand-held in a similar fashion to the stock of a long f ...
, which all had armour-piercing
arrowheads, that put an end to the dominance of the armoured knight. After the long bow, which required great skill and strength to use, the next most significant technological advance was the
musket
A musket is a muzzle-loaded long gun that appeared as a smoothbore weapon in the early 16th century, at first as a heavier variant of the arquebus, capable of penetrating plate armour. By the mid-16th century, this type of musket gradually d ...
, which could be used effectively, with little training. In time, the successors to muskets and
cannon, in the form of
rifle
A rifle is a long-barreled firearm designed for accurate shooting, with a barrel that has a helical pattern of grooves ( rifling) cut into the bore wall. In keeping with their focus on accuracy, rifles are typically designed to be held with ...
s and
artillery, would become core battlefield technology.
As the speed of technological advances accelerated in civilian applications, so too warfare became more
industrialized. The newly invented
machine gun and
repeating rifle A repeating rifle is a single- barreled rifle capable of repeated discharges between each ammunition reloads. This is typically achieved by having multiple cartridges stored in a magazine (within or attached to the gun) and then fed individually i ...
redefined
firepower on the battlefield, and, in part, explains the high casualty rates of the
American Civil War. The next breakthrough was the conversion of artillery parks from the
muzzle loading guns, to the quicker loading
breech loading guns with recoiling barrel that allowed quicker aimed fire and use of a shield. The widespread introduction of low smoke (smokeless) propellant powders since the 1880s also allowed for a great improvement of artillery ranges.
![BattleOfVirginiaCapes](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/BattleOfVirginiaCapes.jpg)
The development of breech loading had the greatest effect on
naval warfare
Naval warfare is combat in and on the sea, the ocean, or any other battlespace involving a major body of water such as a large lake or wide river. Mankind has fought battles on the sea for more than 3,000 years. Even in the interior of large la ...
, for the first time since the Middle Ages, altering the way weapons are mounted on
warships, and therefore
naval tactics, now divorced from the reliance on
sails with the invention of the
internal combustion. A further advance in military naval technology was the design of the
submarine
A submarine (or sub) is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability. The term is also sometimes used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely op ...
, and its weapon, the
torpedo.
Main battle tanks, and other heavy equipment such as
armoured fighting vehicles,
military aircraft, and
ships, are characteristic to organized military forces.
During
World War I, the need to break the deadlock of trench warfare saw the rapid development of many new technologies, particularly
tanks.
Military aviation
Military aviation comprises military aircraft and other flying machines for the purposes of conducting or enabling aerial warfare, including national airlift ( air cargo) capacity to provide logistical supply to forces stationed in a war the ...
was extensively used, and
bombers became decisive in many battles of
World War II, which marked the most frantic period of weapons development in history. Many new designs, and concepts were used in combat, and all existing technologies of warfare were improved between 1939 and 1945.
During the war, significant advances were made in
military communications
Military communications or military signals involve all aspects of communications, or conveyance of information, by armed forces. Military communications span from pre-history to the present. The earliest military communications were delivered b ...
through increased use of radio, military intelligence through use of the
radar, and in
military medicine through use of
penicillin
Penicillins (P, PCN or PEN) are a group of β-lactam antibiotics originally obtained from ''Penicillium'' moulds, principally '' P. chrysogenum'' and '' P. rubens''. Most penicillins in clinical use are synthesised by P. chrysogenum using ...
, while in the air, the guided
missile,
jet aircraft
A jet aircraft (or simply jet) is an aircraft (nearly always a fixed-wing aircraft) propelled by jet engines.
Whereas the engines in propeller-powered aircraft generally achieve their maximum efficiency at much lower speeds and altitudes, je ...
, and
helicopters were seen for the first time. Perhaps the most infamous of all military technologies was the creation of the
atomic bomb
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion reactions (thermonuclear bomb), producing a nuclear explosion. Both bomb ...
, although the exact effects of its
radiation
In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium. This includes:
* ''electromagnetic radiation'', such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visi ...
were unknown until the early 1950s. Far greater use of
military vehicles had finally eliminated the cavalry from the military
force structure.
![USAF F-15C fires AIM-7 Sparrow](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/USAF_F-15C_fires_AIM-7_Sparrow.jpg)
After World War II, with the onset of the
Cold War
The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because the ...
, the constant technological development of new weapons was institutionalized, as participants engaged in a constant '
arms race
An arms race occurs when two or more groups compete in military superiority. It consists of a competition between two or more states to have superior armed forces; a competition concerning production of weapons, the growth of a military, and t ...
' in capability development. This constant state of weapons development continues into the present, and remains a constant drain on national resources, which some blame on the
military–industrial complex.
The most significant technological developments that influenced combat have been the guided missiles, which can be used by all branches of the armed services. More recently,
information technology, and its use in
surveillance
Surveillance is the monitoring of behavior, many activities, or information for the purpose of information gathering, influencing, managing or directing. This can include observation from a distance by means of electronic equipment, such as c ...
, including space-based reconnaissance systems, have played an increasing role in military operations.
The impact of
information warfare that focuses on attacking command communication systems, and military databases, has been coupled with the new development in military technology, has been the use of robotic systems in intelligence combat, both in hardware and software applications.
Recently, there has also been a particular focus towards the use of
renewable fuels for running military vehicles on. Unlike fossil fuels, renewable fuels can be produced in any country, creating a strategic advantage. The
US military has committed itself to have 50% of its energy consumption come from alternative sources.
As part of society
![Samurai and Ainu Fuzoku Ema](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Samurai_and_Ainu_Fuzoku_Ema.jpg)
For much of
military history
Military history is the study of armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, cultures and economies thereof, as well as the resulting changes to local and international relationships.
Professional historians norma ...
, the armed forces were considered to be for use by the heads of their societies, until recently, the crowned heads of states. In a democracy or other political system run in the public interest, it is a
public force.
The relationship between the military and the
society it serves is a complicated and ever-evolving one. Much depends on the nature of the society itself, and whether it sees the military as important, as for example in time of threat or war, or a burdensome expense typified by defence cuts in time of peace.
One difficult matter in the relation between military and society is control and transparency. In some countries, limited information on military operations and budgeting is accessible for the public. However transparency in the military sector is crucial to fight
corruption
Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense which is undertaken by a person or an organization which is entrusted in a position of authority, in order to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's personal gain. Corruption m ...
. This showed the Government Defence Anti-corruption Index
Transparency International UK published in 2013.
Militaries often function as
societies within societies, by having their own military communities,
economies,
education,
medicine, and other aspects of a functioning
civilian society. Although a 'military' is not limited to nations in of itself as many
private military companies (or PMC's) can be used or 'hired' by organizations and figures as security, escort, or other means of protection; where police, agencies, or militaries are absent or not trusted.
Ideology and ethics
![Gustavus Adolphus in action (probably at Lützen)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Gustavus_Adolphus_in_action_%28probably_at_L%C3%BCtzen%29.jpg)
Militarist ideology is the
society's
social attitude
In psychology, attitude is a psychological construct that is a mental and emotional entity that inheres or characterizes a person, their attitude to approach to something, or their personal view on it. Attitude involves their mindset, outlook an ...
of being best served, or being a beneficiary of a
government, or guided by concepts embodied in the military ''culture, doctrine, system'', or ''leaders''.
Either because of the
cultural memory, national history, or the potentiality of a
military threat
A military threat, sometimes expressed as danger of military action, a military challenge, or a military risk, is a concept in military intelligence that identifies an imminent capability for use of military force in resolving diplomatic or economi ...
, the militarist argument asserts that a
civilian population is dependent upon, and thereby subservient to the needs and goals of its military for continued
independence.
Militarism is sometimes contrasted with the concepts of
comprehensive national power #REDIRECT Comprehensive National Power #REDIRECT Comprehensive National Power This article was merged into a differently spelled article on the same topic
{{R from other capitalisation ... This article was merged into a differently spelled ar ...
s which regulate conduct in war and during peacetime. An early exponent was
'' (1625) had a major impact of the humanitarian approach to warfare development. His theme was echoed by
.
Ethics of warfare have developed since 1945, to create constraints on the military treatment of prisoners and civilians, primarily by the
; but rarely apply to use of the military forces as internal security troops during times of political conflict that results in popular protests and incitement to
.
International protocols restrict the use, or have even created international bans on some types of weapons, notably
(WMD).
, and provides for war crimes prosecution. Individual countries also have elaborate codes of
for military personnel found guilty of war crimes.
Military actions are sometimes argued to be justified by furthering a humanitarian cause, such as
operations, or in defence of refugees. The term
is used to refer to such actions.
hosted by Lebanese economy forum, extracted from the World Bank public data.
*
{{Authority control