Micro combined heat and power, micro-CHP, µCHP or mCHP is an extension of the idea of
cogeneration
Cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP) is the use of a heat engine or power station to generate electricity and useful heat at the same time.
Cogeneration is a more efficient use of fuel or heat, because otherwise- wasted heat from elec ...
to the single/multi family home or small office building in the range of up to 50
kW.
Usual technologies for the production of heat and power in one common process are e.g.
internal combustion engine
An internal combustion engine (ICE or IC engine) is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal c ...
s,
micro gas turbines,
stirling engine
A Stirling engine is a heat engine that is operated by the cyclic compression and expansion of air or other gas (the ''working fluid'') between different temperatures, resulting in a net conversion of heat energy to mechanical work.
More specif ...
s or
fuel cells.
Local generation has the potential for a higher efficiency than traditional grid-level generators since it lacks the 8-10% energy losses from transporting
electricity
Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter that has a property of electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as describ ...
over long distances. It also lacks the 10–15% energy losses from
heat transport
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, ...
in heating networks due to the difference between the thermal energy carrier (hot water) and the colder external environment.
The most common systems use natural gas as their primary energy source and emit
carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a chemical compound made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in the gas state at room temperature. In the air, carbon dioxide is trans ...
; nevertheless the
effective efficiency of CHP heat production is much higher than of a condensing boiler, and thus reducing emissions and fuel costs.
Overview
A micro-CHP system usually contains a small
heat engine
In thermodynamics and engineering, a heat engine is a system that converts heat to mechanical energy, which can then be used to do mechanical work. It does this by bringing a working substance from a higher state temperature to a lower state ...
as a prime mover used to rotate a generator which provides
electric power, while simultaneously utilizing the waste heat from the prime mover for an individual building's
space heating
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) is the use of various technologies to control the temperature, humidity, and purity of the air in an enclosed space. Its goal is to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality. HV ...
and the provision of
hot domestic water.
With
fuel cells there is no rotating machinery, but the
fuel cell's stack and where applicable also the
reformer will provide useful heat. The stack does generate DC power which is converted by DC/AC inverter into mains voltage. Micro-CHP is defined by the EU as less than 50 kW electrical power output,
however, others have more restrictive definitions, all the way down to <5 kWe.
A micro-CHP generator may primarily follow heat demand, delivering
electricity
Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter that has a property of electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as describ ...
as the by-product, or may follow electrical demand to
generate electricity, with heat as the by-product. When used primarily for heating, micro-CHP systems may generate more electricity than is instantaneously being demanded; the surplus is then fed into the grid.
The purpose of cogeneration is to make use of more of the chemical energy in the fuel. The reason for using CHP systems is that large
thermal power plant
A thermal power station is a type of power station in which heat energy is converted to electrical energy. In a steam-generating cycle heat is used to boil water in a large pressure vessel to produce high-pressure steam, which drives a steam ...
s which generate electric power by burning fuel produce between 40% to 60% low-temperature
waste heat
Waste heat is heat that is produced by a machine, or other process that uses energy, as a byproduct of doing work. All such processes give off some waste heat as a fundamental result of the laws of thermodynamics. Waste heat has lower utility ...
, due to
Carnot's theorem. The temperature produced by this waste heat (around 80 °C - 150 °C) does allow it to be used for space heating purposes, therefore in some urban areas district heating networks have been installed. Heat networks have a limited extent, as it is not economical to transport heat long distances due to heat loss from the pipes, and it will not reach into areas of low population density, or else revenues per
CAPEX will go down. Where no district heating is possible due to low heat demand density or because the local utility has not invested in costly heat networks, this thermal energy is usually wasted via
cooling tower
A cooling tower is a device that rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of a coolant stream, usually a water stream to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat an ...
s or discharged into rivers, lakes or the sea.
Micro CHP systems allow highly efficient cogeneration while using the waste heat even if the served heat load is rather low. This allows cogeneration to be used outside population centers, or even if there is no district heating network. It is efficient to generate the electricity near the place where the heat can also be used. Small power plants (µCHP) are located in individual buildings, where the heat can be used to support the heating system and recharge the hot domestic water tank, thus saving heating oil or heating gas. CHP systems are able to increase the total energy utilization of primary energy sources. Thus CHP has been steadily gaining popularity in all sectors of the energy economy, due to the increased costs of electricity and fuel, particularly fossil fuels, and due to environmental concerns, particularly
climate change
In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to ...
.
In a traditional
power plant
A power station, also referred to as a power plant and sometimes generating station or generating plant, is an industrial facility for the electricity generation, generation of electric power. Power stations are generally connected to an el ...
delivering electricity to consumers, about 34.4% of the primary energy of the input fuel, such as
coal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Coal is formed when ...
,
natural gas
Natural gas (also called fossil gas or simply gas) is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons consisting primarily of methane in addition to various smaller amounts of other higher alkanes. Low levels of trace gases like carbo ...
,
uranium
Uranium is a chemical element with the symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery-grey metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium is weak ...
,
petroleum
Petroleum, also known as crude oil, or simply oil, is a naturally occurring yellowish-black liquid mixture of mainly hydrocarbons, and is found in geological formations. The name ''petroleum'' covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crud ...
solar thermal
Solar thermal energy (STE) is a form of energy and a technology for harnessing solar energy to generate thermal energy for use in industry, and in the residential and commercial sectors.
Solar thermal collectors are classified by the United S ...
, or
biomass, reaches the consumer via electricity, although the efficiency can be 20% for very old plants and 45% for newer gas plants. In contrast, a CHP system converts 15%–42% of the primary heat to electricity, and most of the remaining heat is captured for
hot water or
space heating
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) is the use of various technologies to control the temperature, humidity, and purity of the air in an enclosed space. Its goal is to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality. HV ...
. In total, over 90% of the heat from the primary energy source (LHV based) can be used when heat production does not exceed the thermal demand.
After the year 2000, micro-CHP has become cost effective in many markets around the world, due to rising energy costs. The development of micro-CHP systems has also been facilitated by recent technological developments of small heat engines. This includes improved performance and cost-effectiveness of
fuel cells,
Stirling engine
A Stirling engine is a heat engine that is operated by the cyclic compression and expansion of air or other gas (the ''working fluid'') between different temperatures, resulting in a net conversion of heat energy to mechanical work.
More specif ...
s,
steam engines,
gas turbines,
diesel engine
The diesel engine, named after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to mechanical compression; thus, the diesel engine is a so-ca ...
s and
Otto engine
The Otto engine was a large stationary single-cylinder internal combustion four-stroke engine designed by the German Nicolaus Otto. It was a low-RPM machine, and only fired every other stroke due to the Otto cycle, also designed by Otto.
Typ ...
s.
Combined heat and power (CHP) systems for homes or small commercial buildings are usually fueled by
natural gas
Natural gas (also called fossil gas or simply gas) is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons consisting primarily of methane in addition to various smaller amounts of other higher alkanes. Low levels of trace gases like carbo ...
to produce electricity and heat.
If no access to the natural gas network is available, which in general is the cheapest alternative,
LPG,
LNG
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4, with some mixture of ethane, C2H6) that has been cooled down to liquid form for ease and safety of non-pressurized storage or transport. It takes up about 1/600th the volu ...
or heating fuel (diesel) might be an alternative.
The
PEMFC
Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), also known as polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, are a type of fuel cell being developed mainly for transport applications, as well as for stationary fuel-cell applications and portable ...
fuel cell mCHP operates at low temperatures (50 to 100 °C) and needs high purity hydrogen. It is prone to contamination; changes are made to operate at higher temperatures and improvements on the fuel reformer. The
SOFC
A solid oxide fuel cell (or SOFC) is an electrochemical conversion device that produces electricity directly from oxidizing a fuel. Fuel cells are characterized by their electrolyte material; the SOFC has a solid oxide or ceramic electrolyte.
A ...
fuel cell mCHP operates at a high temperature (500 to 1,000 °C) and can handle different fuel sources well, but the high temperature requires expensive materials to handle it; changes are made to operate at a lower temperature. Because of the higher temperature the SOFC in general has a longer start-up time and needs continuous heat output even at times when there is no thermal demand.
CHP systems linked to
absorption chillers can use waste heat for
refrigeration
The term refrigeration refers to the process of removing heat from an enclosed space or substance for the purpose of lowering the temperature.International Dictionary of Refrigeration, http://dictionary.iifiir.org/search.phpASHRAE Terminology, ht ...
.
A 2013 UK report from Ecuity Consulting stated that MCHP is the most cost-effective method of utilizing gas to generate energy at the domestic level.
The fuel cell industry review stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales the fuel cell micro-combined heat and power had passed the conventional engine-based micro-CHP systems in sales in 2012.
Technologies
Micro-CHP engine systems are currently based on several different technologies:
*
Internal combustion engine
An internal combustion engine (ICE or IC engine) is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal c ...
s
*
Stirling engine
A Stirling engine is a heat engine that is operated by the cyclic compression and expansion of air or other gas (the ''working fluid'') between different temperatures, resulting in a net conversion of heat energy to mechanical work.
More specif ...
s
*
Fuel cell
*
Microturbine
A microturbine (MT) is a small Gas Turbine with similar cycles and components to a heavy gas turbine. The MT power-to-weight ratio is better than a heavy gas turbine because the reduction of turbine diameters causes an increase in shaft rotational ...
s
*
Steam engine/
Steam motor
A steam motor is a form of steam engine used for light locomotives and light self-propelled motor cars used on railways. The origins of steam motor cars for railways go back to at least the 1850s, if not earlier, as experimental economizations for ...
(using either the traditional water or
organic chemicals such as refrigerants)
Fuels
There are many types of fuels and sources of heat that may be considered for micro-CHP. The properties of these sources vary in terms of system cost, heat cost, environmental effects, convenience, ease of transportation and storage, system maintenance, and system life. Some of the heat sources and fuels that are being considered for use with micro-CHP include:
natural gas
Natural gas (also called fossil gas or simply gas) is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons consisting primarily of methane in addition to various smaller amounts of other higher alkanes. Low levels of trace gases like carbo ...
,
LPG,
biomass, vegetable oil (such as
rapeseed
Rapeseed (''Brassica napus ''subsp.'' napus''), also known as rape, or oilseed rape, is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae (mustard or cabbage family), cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, which naturally contains a ...
oil),
woodgas
Wood gas is a fuel gas that can be used for furnaces, stoves, and vehicles. During the production process, biomass or related carbon-containing materials are gasified within the oxygen-limited environment of a wood gas generator to produce a co ...
,
solar thermal
Solar thermal energy (STE) is a form of energy and a technology for harnessing solar energy to generate thermal energy for use in industry, and in the residential and commercial sectors.
Solar thermal collectors are classified by the United S ...
, and lately also
hydrogen
Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest element. At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula . It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic ...
, as well as multi-fuel systems. The energy sources with the lowest emissions of particulates and net-carbon dioxide include solar power, hydrogen, biomass (with two-stage gasification into
biogas
Biogas is a mixture of gases, primarily consisting of methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide, produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste and food waste. It is a ...
), and natural gas. Due to the high efficiency of the CHP process, cogeneration has still lower carbon emissions compared to energy transformation in fossil driven boilers or thermal power plants.
The majority of cogeneration systems use natural gas for fuel, because natural gas burns easily and cleanly, it can be inexpensive, it is available in most areas and is easily transported through pipelines which already exist for over 60 million homes.
Engine types
Reciprocating internal combustion engines are the most popular type of engine used in micro-CHP systems.
Reciprocating internal combustion engine based systems can be sized such that the engine operates at a single fixed speed, usually resulting in a higher electrical or total efficiency. However, since
reciprocating internal combustion engines have the ability to modulate their power output by changing their operating speed and fuel input, micro-CHP systems based on these engines can have varying electrical and thermal output designed to meet changing demand.
Natural gas is suitable for
internal combustion engine
An internal combustion engine (ICE or IC engine) is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal c ...
s, such as
Otto engine
The Otto engine was a large stationary single-cylinder internal combustion four-stroke engine designed by the German Nicolaus Otto. It was a low-RPM machine, and only fired every other stroke due to the Otto cycle, also designed by Otto.
Typ ...
and
gas turbine
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of continuous flow internal combustion engine. The main parts common to all gas turbine engines form the power-producing part (known as the gas generator or core) and are, in the directio ...
systems. Gas turbines are used in many small systems due to their high efficiency, small size, clean combustion, durability and low maintenance requirements. Gas turbines designed with
foil bearing
A foil bearing, also known as a foil-air bearing, is a type of air bearing. A shaft is supported by a compliant, spring-loaded foil journal lining. Once the shaft is spinning fast enough, the working fluid (usually air) pushes the foil away from ...
s and air-cooling operate without lubricating oil or coolants. The waste heat of gas turbines is mostly in the exhaust, whereas the waste heat of
reciprocating internal combustion engines is split between the exhaust and cooling system.
External combustion engines can run on any high-temperature heat source. These engines include the
Stirling engine
A Stirling engine is a heat engine that is operated by the cyclic compression and expansion of air or other gas (the ''working fluid'') between different temperatures, resulting in a net conversion of heat energy to mechanical work.
More specif ...
, hot "gas" turbocharger, and the
steam engine. Both range from 10%-20% efficiency, and as of 2014, small quantities are in production for micro-CHP products.
Other possibilities include the
Organic Rankine cycle
In thermal engineering, the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) is a type of thermodynamic cycle. It is a variation of the Rankine cycle named for its use of an organic, high-molecular-mass fluid whose vaporization temperature is lower than that of wate ...
, which operates at lower temperatures and pressures using low-grade heat sources. The primary advantage to this is that the equipment is essentially an air-conditioning or refrigeration unit operating as an engine, whereby the piping and other components need not be designed for extreme temperatures and pressures, reducing cost and complexity. Electrical efficiency suffers, but it is presumed that such a system would be utilizing waste heat or a heat source such as a wood stove or gas boiler that would exist anyway for purposes of space heating.
The future of combined heat and power, particularly for homes and small businesses, will continue to be affected by the price of fuel, including natural gas. As fuel prices continue to climb, this will make the economics more favorable for energy conservation measures, and more
efficient energy use, including CHP and micro-CHP.
Fuel cells
Fuel cells generate electricity and heat as a by product. The advantages for a
stationary fuel cell application over stirling CHP are no moving parts, less maintenance, and quieter operation. The surplus electricity can be delivered back to the grid.
PEMFC fuel cells fueled by natural gas or propane use a
steam reformer to convert methane in the gas supply into
carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a chemical compound made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in the gas state at room temperature. In the air, carbon dioxide is trans ...
and hydrogen; the hydrogen then reacts with oxygen in the fuel cell to produce electricity. A
PEMFC
Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), also known as polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, are a type of fuel cell being developed mainly for transport applications, as well as for stationary fuel-cell applications and portable ...
fuel cell based micro-CHP has an electrical efficiency of 37%
LHV and 33%
HHV and a
heat recovery
Heat recovery ventilation (HRV), also known as mechanical ventilation heat recovery (MVHR), is an energy recovery ventilation system which works between two air sources at different temperatures. Heat recovery is a method which is used to reduce ...
efficiency of 52% LHV and 47% HHV with a
service life
A product's service life is its period of use in service. Several related terms describe more precisely a product's life, from the point of manufacture, storage, and distribution, and eventual use.
Service life has been defined as "a product li ...
of 40,000 hours or 4000 start/stop cycles which is equal to 10 year use. An estimated 138,000 Fuel cell CHP systems below 1 kW had been installed in Japan by the end of 2014.
Most of these CHP systems are PEMFC based (85%) and the remaining are SOFC systems.
In 2013
Lifetime is around 60,000 hours. For PEM fuel cell units, which shut down at night, this equates to an estimated lifetime of between ten and fifteen years.
[Latest developments in the Ene-Farm scheme](_blank)
United States Department of Energy (DOE) Technical Targets: 1–10 kW residential combined heat and power fuel cells operating on
natural gas
Natural gas (also called fossil gas or simply gas) is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons consisting primarily of methane in addition to various smaller amounts of other higher alkanes. Low levels of trace gases like carbo ...
.
1 Standard utility natural gas delivered at typical residential distribution line pressures.
2 Regulated AC net/lower heating value of fuel.
3 Only heat available at 80 °C or higher is included in CHP energy efficiency calculation.
4 Cost includes materials and labor costs to produce stack, plus any balance of plant necessary for stack operation. Cost defined at 50,000 unit/year production (250 MW in 5 kW modules).
5 Based on operating cycle to be released in 2010.
6 Time until >20% net power degradation.
Thermoelectrics
Thermoelectric
The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage and vice versa via a thermocouple. A thermoelectric device creates a voltage when there is a different temperature on each side. Conversely, when ...
generators operating on the
Seebeck Effect
The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage and vice versa via a thermocouple. A thermoelectric device creates a voltage when there is a different temperature on each side. Conversely, when ...
show promise due to their total absence of moving parts. Efficiency, however, is the major concern as most thermoelectric devices fail to achieve 5% efficiency even with high temperature differences.
Solar micro-CHP
CPVT
This can be achieved by
Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector
Photovoltaic thermal collectors, typically abbreviated as PVT collectors and also known as hybrid solar collectors, photovoltaic thermal solar collectors, PV/T collectors or solar cogeneration systems, are power generation technologies that conver ...
, another option is Concentrated photovoltaics and thermal (CPVT), also sometimes called combined heat and power solar (CHAPS), is a
cogeneration
Cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP) is the use of a heat engine or power station to generate electricity and useful heat at the same time.
Cogeneration is a more efficient use of fuel or heat, because otherwise- wasted heat from elec ...
technology used in concentrated photovoltaics that produce both electricity and heat in the same module. The heat may be employed in
district heating
District heating (also known as heat networks or teleheating) is a system for distributing heat generated in a centralized location through a system of insulated pipes for residential and commercial heating requirements such as space heating a ...
,
water heating and
air conditioning
Air conditioning, often abbreviated as A/C or AC, is the process of removing heat from an enclosed space to achieve a more comfortable interior environment (sometimes referred to as 'comfort cooling') and in some cases also strictly controlling ...
,
desalination or
process heat Process heat refers to the application of heat during industrial processes. Some form of process heat is used during the manufacture of many common products, from concrete to glass to steel to paper. Where byproducts or wastes of the overall indus ...
.
CPVT systems are currently in production in Europe, with
Zenith Solar
Zenith Solar was an Israeli solar energy company based in Ness Ziona.
History
Zenith Solar was founded in 2006 by Roy Segev, David Faiman and Bob Whelen.[Sopogy
Sopogy was a solar thermal technology supplier founded in 2002 at the Honolulu, Hawaii-based clean technology incubator known as Energy Laboratories. The company began its research on concentrating solar thermal energy to produce solar steam and t ...]
produces a micro
concentrated solar power (microCSP) system based on
parabolic trough
A parabolic trough is a type of solar thermal collector that is straight in one dimension and curved as a parabola in the other two, lined with a polished metal mirror. The sunlight which enters the mirror parallel to its plane of symmetry is foc ...
which can be installed above building or homes, the heat can be used for water heating or
solar air conditioning
Solar air conditioning, or "solar-powered air conditioning", refers to any air conditioning (cooling) system that uses solar power.
This can be done through passive solar design, solar thermal energy conversion, and photovoltaic conversion (sunl ...
, a
steam turbine can also be installed to produce electricity.
CHP+PV
The recent development of small scale CHP systems has provided the opportunity for in-house power backup of residential-scale
photovoltaic (PV) arrays.
[ ] The results of a recent study show that a PV+CHP hybrid system not only has the potential to radically reduce energy waste in the status quo electrical and heating systems, but it also enables the share of solar PV to be expanded by about a factor of five.
In some regions, in order to reduce waste from excess heat, an
absorption chiller has been proposed to utilize the CHP-produced thermal energy for cooling of PV-CHP system. These
trigen+PV systems have the potential to save even more energy.
Net metering
To date, micro-CHP systems achieve much of their savings, and thus attractiveness to consumers, by the value of electrical energy which is replaced by the autoproduced electricity. A "generate-and-resell" or
net metering model supports this, as home-generated power exceeding the instantaneous in-home needs is sold back to the electrical utility. This system is efficient because the energy used is distributed and used instantaneously over the
electrical grid. The main losses are in the transmission from the source to the consumer, which will typically be less than the losses incurred by storing energy locally or generating power at less than the peak efficiency of the micro-CHP system. So, from a purely technical standpoint
dynamic demand management and net-metering are very efficient.
Another advantage of net-metering is that it is fairly easy to configure. The user's
electrical meter can easily record electrical energy exiting as well as entering the home or business. For a grid with relatively few micro-CHP users, no design changes to the electrical grid need be made. Additionally, in the United States, federal and now many state regulations require utility operators to compensate anyone adding power to the grid. From the standpoint of the grid operator, these points present operational and technical as well as administrative burdens. As a consequence, most grid operators compensate non-
utility
As a topic of economics, utility is used to model worth or value. Its usage has evolved significantly over time. The term was introduced initially as a measure of pleasure or happiness as part of the theory of utilitarianism by moral philosoph ...
power-contributors at less than or equal to the rate they charge their customers. While this compensation scheme may seem almost fair at first glance, it only represents the consumer's cost-savings of not purchasing utility power versus the true cost of generation and operation to the micro-CHP operator. Thus from the standpoint of micro-CHP operators, net-metering is not ideal.
While net-metering is a very efficient mechanism for using excess energy generated by a micro-CHP system, it does have disadvantages: while the main generating source on the electrical grid is a large commercial generator, net-metering generators "spill" power to the
smart grid in a haphazard and unpredictable fashion. However, the effect is negligible if there are only a small percentage of customers generating electricity and each of them generates a relatively small amount of electricity. When turning on an oven or space heater, about the same amount of electricity is drawn from the grid as a home generator puts out. If the percentage of homes with generating systems becomes large, then the effect on the grid may become significant. Coordination among the generating systems in homes and the rest of the grid may be necessary for reliable operation and to prevent damage to the grid.
Market status
Japan
The largest deployment of micro-CHP is in
Japan in 2009 with over 90,000 units in place,
with the vast majority being of
Honda
is a Japanese public multinational conglomerate manufacturer of automobiles, motorcycles, and power equipment, headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan.
Honda has been the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer since 1959, reaching a producti ...
's "ECO-WILL" type. Six Japanese energy companies launched the 300 W–1 kW
PEMFC
Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), also known as polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, are a type of fuel cell being developed mainly for transport applications, as well as for stationary fuel-cell applications and portable ...
/
SOFC
A solid oxide fuel cell (or SOFC) is an electrochemical conversion device that produces electricity directly from oxidizing a fuel. Fuel cells are characterized by their electrolyte material; the SOFC has a solid oxide or ceramic electrolyte.
A ...
ENE FARM product in 2009, with 3,000 installed units in 2008, a production target of 150,000 units for 2009–2010 and a target of 2,500,000 units in 2030. 20,000 units were sold in 2012 overall within the Ene Farm project making an estimated total of 50,000 PEMFC and up to 5,000 SOFC installations. For 2013 a state subsidy for 50,000 units is in place.
The ENE FARM project will pass 100.000 systems in 2014, 34.213 PEMFC and 2.224 SOFC were installed in the period 2012–2014, 30,000 units on
LNG
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4, with some mixture of ethane, C2H6) that has been cooled down to liquid form for ease and safety of non-pressurized storage or transport. It takes up about 1/600th the volu ...
and 6,000 on
LPG.
[
]
ECOWILL
Sold by various gas companies and as of 2013, installed in a total of 131,000 homes. Manufactured by Honda using their single cylinder EXlink engine capable of burning natural gas or propane. Each unit produces 1 kW of electricity and 2.8 kW of hot water.
PEMFC
*Per December 2012, Panasonic
formerly between 1935 and 2008 and the first incarnation of between 2008 and 2022, is a major Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation, headquartered in Kadoma, Osaka. It was founded by Kōnosuke Matsushita in 1918 as a lightbulb ...
and Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd. sold about 21,000 PEM Ene-Farm units in Japan for a price of $22,600 before installation.
*Toshiba and Osaka Gas Co., Ltd./Nichigas installed 6,500 PEM ENE FARM units (manufactured by CHOFU SEISAKUSHO Co.,Ltd. ) per November 2011.
SOFC
*In the middle of 2012, JX Nippon Oil Co. & Sanyo
, stylized as SANYO, is a Japanese electronics company and formerly a member of the ''Fortune'' Global 500 whose headquarters was located in Moriguchi, Osaka prefecture, Japan. Sanyo had over 230 subsidiaries and affiliates, and was founded by ...
and Seibu Gas Energy Co. sold around 4,000 SOFC Ene Farm units.
*Aisin Seiki
is a Japanese corporation that develops and produces components and systems for the automotive industry. Aisin is a Fortune Global 500 company, ranked 359 rankings. Aisin is a member of the Toyota Group of companies.
Aisin was founded in 196 ...
in combination with Osaka Gas, Kyocera
is a Japanese multinational ceramics and electronics manufacturer headquartered in Kyoto, Japan. It was founded as in 1959 by Kazuo Inamori and renamed in 1982. It manufactures industrial ceramics, solar power generating systems, telecommunic ...
, Toyota and Chofu Seisakusho started in April 2012 with the sales of the SOFC ENE-FARM Type S for around $33,500 before installation.
* NGK is a manufacturer of 700W-1 kW mCHP units.
* Miura Kogyo and Sumitomo Precision Products with a 4.2 kW unit.
*Toto Ltd.
, stylized as TOTO, previously known as Toyo Toki, is a Japanese multinational toilet manufacturer which is known for manufacturing the Washlet (as well as the Warmlet and similar products). TOTO was founded in 1917. The company is based in Ki ...
South Korea
In South Korea
South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula and sharing a land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed by the Yellow Sea, while its eas ...
, subsidies will start at 80 percent of the cost of a domestic fuel cell. The Renewable Portfolio Standard program with renewable energy certificates runs from 2012 to 2022.
Quota systems favor large, vertically integrated generators and multinational electric utilities, if only because certificates are generally denominated in units of one megawatt-hour. They are also more difficult to design and implement than a Feed-in tariff
A feed-in tariff (FIT, FiT, standard offer contract,Couture, T., Cory, K., Kreycik, C., Williams, E., (2010)Policymaker's Guide to Feed-in Tariff Policy Design National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Dept. of Energy advanced renewable tariff, ...
.[Renewable Energy Policy Mechanisms by Paul Gipe](_blank)
(1.3MB)
Lauber, V. (2004). "REFIT and RPS: Options for a harmonized Community framework," Energy Policy, Vol. 32, Issue 12, pp.1405–1414.
Lauber, V. (2008). "Certificate Trading – Part of the Solution or Part of the Problem?"
Ljubljana Conference on the Future of GHG Emissions Trading in the EU, March 2008. Salzburg, Austria: University of Salzburg. Retrieved 16 March 2009 at: www.uni-salzburg.at/politikwissenschaft/lauber
Around 350 residential mCHP units were installed in 2012.
*PEMFC by GS FuelCell, FuelCell Power, Hyundai Hysco
Hyundai Hysco Co., Ltd. () was a steel company of Hyundai Motor Group, headquartered in Ulsan, South Korea. Hysco produced automotive steel sheet products and various steel pipes. The company was merged with Hyundai Steel in July 2015.
History
Hy ...
JV with Plug Power
Plug Power Inc. is an American company engaged in the development of hydrogen fuel cell systems that replace conventional batteries in equipment and vehicles powered by electricity. The company is headquartered in Latham, New York, and has facili ...
and Hyosung
Hyosung Corporation is a South Korean industrial Chaebol, founded in 1966. It operates in various fields, including the chemical industry, industrial machinery, IT, trade, and construction. It is known in Korea mostly for high-end apartments a ...
,
*SOFC by KEPRI, LS Industrial Systems (from ClearEdge Power
ClearEdge Power, Inc. was a fuel cell manufacturer focusing on the stationary fuel cell. It was headquartered in South Windsor, Connecticut, U.S. The company employed 225 people as of August 2011. It closed its operations in Connecticut in April ...
), Samsung Everland (ClearEdge Power).
* MCFC by POSCO Energy (FuelCell Energy
FuelCell Energy, Inc. is a publicly traded fuel cell company, headquartered in Danbury, Connecticut. It designs, manufactures, operates and services Direct Fuel Cell power plants (a type of molten carbonate fuel cell).
As one of the biggest ...
) and Doosan.
*PAFC Doosan Fuel Cell America
ClearEdge Power, Inc. was a fuel cell manufacturer focusing on the stationary fuel cell. It was headquartered in South Windsor, Connecticut, U.S. The company employed 225 people as of August 2011. It closed its operations in Connecticut in April ...
*AFC AFC Energy
Europe
The European public–private partnership
A public–private partnership (PPP, 3P, or P3) is a long-term arrangement between a government and private sector institutions.Hodge, G. A and Greve, C. (2007), Public–Private Partnerships: An International Performance Review, Public Adminis ...
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking
A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as thermal energy or to be used for work. The concept was originally applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but ...
Seventh Framework Programme
The Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development, also called Framework Programmes or abbreviated FP1 to FP9, are funding programmes created by the European Union/European Commission to support and foster research in the Europe ...
project ene.field aims to deploy by 2017 up 1,000 residential fuel cell Combined Heat and Power (micro-CHP) installations in 12 EU member states.
*The programme brings together 9 mature European micro FC-CHP manufacturers into a common analysis framework to deliver trials across all of the available fuel cell CHP technologies. Fuel cell micro-CHP trials will be installed and actively monitored in dwellings across the range of European domestic heating markets, dwelling types and climatic zone
Climate classifications are systems that categorize the world's climates. A climate classification may correlate closely with a biome classification, as climate is a major influence on life in a region. One of the most used is the Köppen climate ...
s, which will lead to an invaluable dataset on domestic energy consumption and micro-CHP applicability across Europe.
*The ene.field project also brings together over 30 utilities, housing providers and municipalities to bring the products to market and explore different business models for micro-CHP deployment.
Sweden
Powercell Sweden is a fuel cell company that develop environmentally friendly electric generators with the unique fuel cell and reformer technology that is suitable for both existing and future fuel.
Germany
In Germany, ca 50 MW of mCHP up to 50 kW units have been installed in 2015. The German government is offering large CHP incentives, including a market premium on electricity generated by CHP and an investment bonus for micro-CHP units. The German testing project Callux has 500 mCHP installations per nov 2014.[Enfarm enefield eneware](_blank)
North Rhine-Westphalia
North Rhine-Westphalia (german: Nordrhein-Westfalen, ; li, Noordrien-Wesfale ; nds, Noordrhien-Westfalen; ksh, Noodrhing-Wäßßfaale), commonly shortened to NRW (), is a state (''Land'') in Western Germany. With more than 18 million inha ...
launched a 250 million subsidy program for up to 50 kW lasting until 2017.
PEMFC
*BDR Thermea The BDR Thermea Group is a European manufacturer and distributor of domestic and commercial water and space heating systems. Its brands include Baxi, De Dietrich Remeha, Brötje, Chappée and Baymak.
BDR Thermea Group operates in more than 100 ...
/BAXI
Baxi is part of BDR Thermea, one of Europe's largest manufacturers and distributors of domestic and commercial water and space heating systems.
Baxi employs 6,400 people throughout Europe, with a turnover exceeding €1.2 billion. The g ...
(Toshiba)
*Viessmann
The Viessmann Group is a German manufacturer of heating and refrigeration systems headquartered in Allendorf (Eder), Germany. With 22 production companies in 12 countries, distribution companies and representative offices in 74 countries and 120 ...
(Panasonic)
* Elcore, a 300W addon.
*Tropical
The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in
the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...
* Dantherm Power
* Riesaer Brennstoffzellentechnik GmbH (Inhouse Engineering)
SOFC
*Center for Fuel Cell Technology
Center or centre may refer to:
Mathematics
*Center (geometry), the middle of an object
* Center (algebra), used in various contexts
** Center (group theory)
** Center (ring theory)
* Graph center, the set of all vertices of minimum eccentricity ...
(ZBT) ( JX Nippon)
*Ceramic Fuel Cells
Ceramic Fuel Cells Ltd () was an Australian fuel cell technology company, based in Melbourne. The company produced the "BlueGen" gas-to-electricity generators. CFCL's developed solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) technology to provide reliable, energ ...
installs until 2014 up to 100 SOFC units under the SOFT-PACT project with E.ON in Germany and the UK. A factory in Heinsberg
Heinsberg (; li, Hinsberg ) is a town in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is the seat of the district Heinsberg. It is situated near the border with the Netherlands, on the river Wurm, approx. 20 km north-east of Sittard and 30 km ...
, Germany for the production of SOFC based micro-CHP units started in June 2009 to produce 10,000 two-kilowatt units per year.
* Vaillant (Sunfire/Staxera)
*Buderus/Junkers – Bosch Thermotechnik (Aisin Seiki)
* SOFCpower/ Ariston
*Itho-Daalderop ( Ceres Power)
*Viessmann
The Viessmann Group is a German manufacturer of heating and refrigeration systems headquartered in Allendorf (Eder), Germany. With 22 production companies in 12 countries, distribution companies and representative offices in 74 countries and 120 ...
(HEXIS
Hexis ( grc, ἕξις) is a relatively stable arrangement or disposition, for example a person's health or knowledge or character. It is an Ancient Greek word, important in the philosophy of Aristotle, and because of this it has become a traditio ...
),
UK
It is estimated that about 1,000 micro-CHP systems were in operation in the UK as of 2002. These are primarily Whispergen using Stirling engine
A Stirling engine is a heat engine that is operated by the cyclic compression and expansion of air or other gas (the ''working fluid'') between different temperatures, resulting in a net conversion of heat energy to mechanical work.
More specif ...
s, and Senertec Dachs reciprocating engine
A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert high temperature and high pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the common fea ...
s. The market is supported by the government through regulatory work, and some government research money expended through the Energy Saving Trust and Carbon Trust
The Carbon Trust was developed and launched in 1999-2001 as part of the development of the Climate Change Levy (CCL), a tax on business energy use that still operates today. The Carbon Trust was originally funded by around £50m of tax revenue ge ...
, which are public bodies supporting energy efficiency in the UK. Effective as of 7 April 2005, the UK government cut the VAT from 17.5% to 5% for micro-CHP systems, in order to support demand for this emerging technology at the expense of existing, less environmentally friendly technology. Of the 24 million households in the UK, as many as 14 to 18 million are thought to be suitable for micro-CHP units.
PEMFC
*In early 2012 less than 1000 1 kWe Baxi
Baxi is part of BDR Thermea, one of Europe's largest manufacturers and distributors of domestic and commercial water and space heating systems.
Baxi employs 6,400 people throughout Europe, with a turnover exceeding €1.2 billion. The g ...
-Innotech PEM micro-CHP units from BDR Thermea The BDR Thermea Group is a European manufacturer and distributor of domestic and commercial water and space heating systems. Its brands include Baxi, De Dietrich Remeha, Brötje, Chappée and Baymak.
BDR Thermea Group operates in more than 100 ...
were installed [Micro-CHP Japan continues to lead as fuel cell units emerge](_blank)
* IE-CHP
SOFC
*A Ceres Power factory in Horsham UK for the production of SOFC
A solid oxide fuel cell (or SOFC) is an electrochemical conversion device that produces electricity directly from oxidizing a fuel. Fuel cells are characterized by their electrolyte material; the SOFC has a solid oxide or ceramic electrolyte.
A ...
based micro-CHP units is expected to start low-volume production in the second half of 2009
*Ceramic Fuel Cells
Ceramic Fuel Cells Ltd () was an Australian fuel cell technology company, based in Melbourne. The company produced the "BlueGen" gas-to-electricity generators. CFCL's developed solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) technology to provide reliable, energ ...
Denmark
The Danish mCHP project 2007 to 2014 with 30 units is on the island of Lolland and in the western town Varde
Varde is a Danish city in southwestern Jutland and is the primary city in the municipality of Varde, in Region of Southern Denmark. In 2015 municipality changed its motto to "We in nature" to emphasize its rural atmosphere. The town has an old ma ...
. Denmark is currently part of the Ene.field project.
* EWII Fuel Cell
* Dantherm Power ( Ballard Power)
The Netherlands
The micro-CHP subsidy was ended in 2012. To test the effects of mCHP on a smart grid, 45 natural gas
Natural gas (also called fossil gas or simply gas) is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons consisting primarily of methane in addition to various smaller amounts of other higher alkanes. Low levels of trace gases like carbo ...
SOFC
A solid oxide fuel cell (or SOFC) is an electrochemical conversion device that produces electricity directly from oxidizing a fuel. Fuel cells are characterized by their electrolyte material; the SOFC has a solid oxide or ceramic electrolyte.
A ...
units (each 1,5 kWh) from Republiq Power (Ceramic Fuel Cells
Ceramic Fuel Cells Ltd () was an Australian fuel cell technology company, based in Melbourne. The company produced the "BlueGen" gas-to-electricity generators. CFCL's developed solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) technology to provide reliable, energ ...
) will be placed on Ameland
Ameland (; West Frisian: It Amelân) is a municipality and one of the West Frisian Islands off the north coast of the Netherlands. It consists mostly of sand dunes. It is the third major island of the West Frisians. It neighbours islands Ter ...
in 2013 to function as a virtual power plant
A virtual power plant (VPP) is a Cloud computing, cloud-based distributed power plant that aggregates the capacities of heterogeneous distributed energy resources (DER) for the purposes of enhancing power generation, trading or selling power on the ...
.
United States
The federal government is offering a 10% tax credit
A tax credit is a tax incentive which allows certain taxpayers to subtract the amount of the credit they have accrued from the total they owe the state. It may also be a credit granted in recognition of taxes already paid or a form of state "dis ...
for smaller CHP and micro-CHP commercial applications.
In 2007, the United States company "Climate Energy" of Massachusetts introduced the "Freewatt, a micro-CHP system based on a Honda
is a Japanese public multinational conglomerate manufacturer of automobiles, motorcycles, and power equipment, headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan.
Honda has been the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer since 1959, reaching a producti ...
MCHP engine bundled with a gas furnace (for warm air systems) or boiler (for hydronic or forced hot water heating systems).
*AFC Doosan Fuel Cell America
ClearEdge Power, Inc. was a fuel cell manufacturer focusing on the stationary fuel cell. It was headquartered in South Windsor, Connecticut, U.S. The company employed 225 people as of August 2011. It closed its operations in Connecticut in April ...
*PEMFC Plug Power
Plug Power Inc. is an American company engaged in the development of hydrogen fuel cell systems that replace conventional batteries in equipment and vehicles powered by electricity. The company is headquartered in Latham, New York, and has facili ...
(Ballard Power Systems
Ballard Power Systems Inc. is a developer and manufacturer of proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell products for markets such as heavy-duty motive (consisting of bus and tram applications), portable power, material handling as well as engine ...
)
The Freewatt is no longer commercially available (since at least 2014). Through testing it was found to operate at 23.4% efficiency for electrical and 51% efficiency for waste heat recovery.[Taie, Z., Hagen, C. (2016). ARPA-e Final Scientific/Technical Report - Home Generator Benchmarking Program. Oregon State University. Bend, Oregon.]
Marathon Engine Systems, a Wisconsin company, produces a variable electrical and thermal output micro-CHP system called the ecopower with an electrical output of 2.2-4.7 kWe. The ecopower was independently measured to operate at 24.4% and 70.1% electrical and waste heat recovery efficiency, respectively.
Canada
*Hyteon PEM
Through a pilot program scheduled for mid-2009 in the Canadian province of Ontario, the Freewatt system is being offered by home builder Eden Oak with support from ECR International, Enbridge
Enbridge Inc. is a multinational pipeline and energy company headquartered in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Enbridge owns and operates pipelines throughout Canada and the United States, transporting crude oil, natural gas, and natural gas liquids. ...
Gas Distribution and National Grid.
Research
Testing is underway in Ameland
Ameland (; West Frisian: It Amelân) is a municipality and one of the West Frisian Islands off the north coast of the Netherlands. It consists mostly of sand dunes. It is the third major island of the West Frisians. It neighbours islands Ter ...
, the Netherlands for a three-year field testing until 2010 of HCNG where 20% hydrogen is added to the local CNG
Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a fuel gas mainly composed of methane (CH4), compressed to less than 1% of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. It is stored and distributed in hard containers at a pressure of , usually in cy ...
distribution net, the appliances involved are kitchen stove
A kitchen stove, often called simply a stove or a cooker, is a kitchen appliance designed for the purpose of cooking food. Kitchen stoves rely on the application of direct heat for the cooking process and may also contain an oven, used for ba ...
s, condensing boiler
Condensing boilers are water heaters typically used for heating systems that are fueled by gas or oil. When operated in the correct circumstances, a heating system can achieve high efficiency (greater than 90% on the higher heating value) by cond ...
s, and micro-CHP boilers.
Micro-CHP Accelerator, a field trial performed between 2005 and 2008, studied the performance of 87 Stirling engine
A Stirling engine is a heat engine that is operated by the cyclic compression and expansion of air or other gas (the ''working fluid'') between different temperatures, resulting in a net conversion of heat energy to mechanical work.
More specif ...
and internal combustion engine
An internal combustion engine (ICE or IC engine) is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal c ...
devices in residential houses in the UK. This study found that the devices resulted in average carbon savings of 9% for houses with heat demand over 54 GJ/year.
An ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) paper fully describes the performance and operating
experience with two residential sized Combined Heat and Power units which were in operation from 1979
through 1995.
Oregon State University, funded by the U.S. Department of Energy's Advanced Research Project Agency - Energy (ARPA-e), tested the state of the art micro-CHP systems in the United States. The results showed that the nominally 1 kWe state-of-the-art micro-CHP system operated at an electrical and total efficiency (LHV based) of 23.4 and 74.4%, respectively. The nominally 5 kWe state-of-the-art system operated at an electrical and total efficiency (LHV based) of 24.4 and 94.5%, respectively. The most popular 7 kWe home backup generator (not CHP) operated at an electrical efficiency (LHV based) of 21.5%. The price of the emergency backup generator was an order of magnitude lower than the 5 kWe generator, but the projected life span of the system was over 2 orders of magnitude lower. These results show the trade-off between efficiency, cost, and durability.
The U.S. Department of Energy's Advanced Research Project Agency - Energy (ARPA-e) has funded $25 million towards mCHP research in the GENerators for Small Electrical and Thermal Systems (GENSETS) program. 12 project teams have been selected to develop a 1 kWe mCHP technology that can achieve 40% electrical efficiency, have a 10-year system life, and cost under $3000.
See also
*Distributed generation
Distributed generation, also distributed energy, on-site generation (OSG), or district/decentralized energy, is electrical generation and storage performed by a variety of small, grid-connected or distribution system-connected devices referred to ...
*District heating
District heating (also known as heat networks or teleheating) is a system for distributing heat generated in a centralized location through a system of insulated pipes for residential and commercial heating requirements such as space heating a ...
*Feed-in tariff
A feed-in tariff (FIT, FiT, standard offer contract,Couture, T., Cory, K., Kreycik, C., Williams, E., (2010)Policymaker's Guide to Feed-in Tariff Policy Design National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Dept. of Energy advanced renewable tariff, ...
*Geothermal power in Iceland
Geothermal power in Iceland refers to the use of geothermal energy in Iceland for electricity generation.
Iceland’s uniquely active geology has led to natural conditions especially suitable for harnessing geothermal energy. Icelanders have long ...
*Grid-tied electrical system
A grid-tied electrical system, also called ''tied to grid'' or ''grid tie system'', is a semi-autonomous electrical generation or grid energy storage system which links to the mains to feed excess capacity back to the local mains electrical grid. ...
*Home fuel cell
A home fuel cell or a residential fuel cell is an electrochemical cell used for primary or backup power generation. They are similar to the larger industrial stationary fuel cell, fuel cells, but built on a smaller scale for residential use. Thes ...
* Pinch analysis
*Relative cost of electricity generated by different sources
Different methods of electricity generation can incur a variety of different costs, which can be divided into three general categories: 1) wholesale costs, or all costs paid by utilities associated with acquiring and distributing electricity to ...
* Stationary fuel cell applications
*Timeline of hydrogen technologies
This is a timeline of the history of hydrogen technology.
Timeline
16th century
* c. 1520 – First recorded observation of hydrogen by Paracelsus through dissolution of metals (iron, zinc, and tin) in sulfuric acid.
17th century
* 1625 – F ...
*Trigeneration
Cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP) is the use of a heat engine or power station to generate electricity and useful heat at the same time.
Cogeneration is a more efficient use of fuel or heat, because otherwise- wasted heat from elect ...
*Virtual power plant
A virtual power plant (VPP) is a Cloud computing, cloud-based distributed power plant that aggregates the capacities of heterogeneous distributed energy resources (DER) for the purposes of enhancing power generation, trading or selling power on the ...
References
External links
DOE USA fuel cells in combined heat and power
{{Authority control
Cogeneration
Renewable energy
Hydrogen technologies