Michael of Cesena (''Michele di Cesena'' or ''Michele Fuschi'') ( 1270 – 29 November 1342) was an Italian
Franciscan
, image = FrancescoCoA PioM.svg
, image_size = 200px
, caption = A cross, Christ's arm and Saint Francis's arm, a universal symbol of the Franciscans
, abbreviation = OFM
, predecessor =
, ...
,
Minister General of that order, and theologian. His advocacy of
evangelical poverty brought him into conflict with
Pope John XXII.
Biography
Of his early life little is known. He was born at
Cesena
Cesena (; rgn, Cisêna) is a city and '' comune'' in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy, served by Autostrada A14, and located near the Apennine Mountains, about from the Adriatic Sea. The total population is 97,137.
History
Cesena was ...
. Having entered the Franciscan Order, he studied at Paris and took the doctor's degree in theology in 1316. He taught theology at
Bologna
Bologna (, , ; egl, label=Emilian language, Emilian, Bulåggna ; lat, Bononia) is the capital and largest city of the Emilia-Romagna region in Northern Italy. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy with about 400,000 inhabitants and 1 ...
and wrote several commentaries on
Holy Scripture and the ''
Sentences of Peter Lombard
''The Four Books of Sentences'' (''Libri Quattuor Sententiarum'') is a book of theology written by Peter Lombard in the 12th century. It is a systematic compilation of theology, written around 1150; it derives its name from the ''sententiae'' ...
''.
[Donovan, Stephen. "Michael of Cesena." The Catholic Encyclopedia]
Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 1 January 2020
At the general chapter in
Naples
Naples (; it, Napoli ; nap, Napule ), from grc, Νεάπολις, Neápolis, lit=new city. is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 909,048 within the city's adminis ...
on 31 May 1316, he was elected
minister general ''in absentia'' and went at once to
Assisi, where he convoked a chapter to consider the revision of the Constitutions of the order. Returning to Bologna, he issued the document, ''Gravi qua premor'' (21 August 1316), which, together with several other ordinances regarding the matter of poverty, induced John XXII to publish the
bull
A bull is an intact (i.e., not castrated) adult male of the species '' Bos taurus'' (cattle). More muscular and aggressive than the females of the same species (i.e., cows), bulls have long been an important symbol in many religions,
incl ...
''Quorumdam exigit'' (7 October 1317), whose purpose was to explain the
decretals of
Nicholas III, ''Exiit qui seminat'' (13 August 1279), and of
Clement V, ''Exivi de paradiso'' (6 May 1312). John XXII ordered rebellious spirituals to stop arguing and obey their superiors. Initially, Michael agreed with the pope in suppressing the spirituals, whom he had been unable to persuade to conform.
As the papal bull concerned the principal chapter of the
Franciscan Rule, this action caused no little disturbance within the order.
[ Earlier, in an effort to quell the disagreements between the conventuals and the zelanti, ]Pope Gregory IX
Pope Gregory IX ( la, Gregorius IX; born Ugolino di Conti; c. 1145 or before 1170 – 22 August 1241) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 19 March 1227 until his death in 1241. He is known for issuing the '' Decre ...
had ruled that all property given to the Franciscans was vested in the Holy See
The Holy See ( lat, Sancta Sedes, ; it, Santa Sede ), also called the See of Rome, Petrine See or Apostolic See, is the jurisdiction of the Pope in his role as the bishop of Rome. It includes the apostolic episcopal see of the Diocese of R ...
, which granted the friars the mere use of it. This was later confirmed by Pope Nicholas III
Pope Nicholas III ( la, Nicolaus III; c. 1225 – 22 August 1280), born Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 25 November 1277 to his death on 22 August 1280.
He was a Roman nobleman who ...
. John XXII reversed this. By the bull ''Ad conditorem canonum'' of 8 December 1322, he declared it ridiculous to pretend that every scrap of food given to the friars and eaten by them belonged to the pope, refused to accept ownership over the goods of the Franciscans in future and granted them exemption from the rule that absolutely forbade ownership of anything even in common, thus forcing them to accept ownership.
This was opposed by Cesena and his supporters, who claimed that in adopting the strict poverty upon which Cesena had insisted in his letters, they were following the example and teaching of Christ and the Apostles
An apostle (), in its literal sense, is an emissary, from Ancient Greek ἀπόστολος (''apóstolos''), literally "one who is sent off", from the verb ἀποστέλλειν (''apostéllein''), "to send off". The purpose of such sending ...
. They held the view that since Christ and the Apostles held no property, neither should the Church.[Brackney, William H., ''Historical Dictionary of Radical Christianity'', Scarecrow Press, 2012, p. 131]
/ref> Thus the controversy finally shifted to a speculative theological question: whether or not it was consonant with Catholic faith to hold that Christ and the Apostles had no property individually or in common, and while in the famous dispute at Narbonne in 1321 the inquisitor John of Belna claimed that it was heretical, Berengarius of Perpignan declared it a Catholic dogma in perfect accordance with the decretals of Nicholas III and Clement V.[
The matter having been brought before John XXII, a further attempt to settle the controversy was made by distinguishing between dominion and simple use, so that both propositions, Christ and the Apostles had no property, i.e., dominion of property, and Christ and the Apostles possessed property, i.e., the use of property, were true. In the bull ''Quia nonnunquam'' (26 March 1322) the pope declared that he intended merely to explain the decrees of his predecessors, and excommunicated anyone who attempted to misconstrue the meaning of the papal Constitution ''Quorumdam exigit''.
In June of the same year a general chapter of the order was convoked at ]Perugia
Perugia (, , ; lat, Perusia) is the capital city of Umbria in central Italy, crossed by the River Tiber, and of the province of Perugia.
The city is located about north of Rome and southeast of Florence. It covers a high hilltop and par ...
and decided that to assert that Christ and His Apostles possessed no earthly goods was not only not heretical, but sound and Catholic doctrine. At the same time, Bonagratia of Bergamo was commissioned to represent the chapter before the papal Curia, at Avignon
Avignon (, ; ; oc, Avinhon, label=Provençal or , ; la, Avenio) is the prefecture of the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of Southeastern France. Located on the left bank of the river Rhône, the commune ha ...
.
Summons to Avignon
The controversy continued unabated until, in 1327, Cesena was summoned to appear before the pope. The latter summoned him to Avignon in 1327 and Cesena eventually agreed to go, after feigning illness and delaying. He obeyed a subsequent summons and was forbidden by the pope under pain of grave censure to leave Avignon. He was thus unable to attend the chapter held at Bologna in May of the following year (1328). Despite his absence and the protest of the papal legate, he was reelected minister general, the chapter deeming the charges against him insufficient to deprive him of office.
Cesena managed to win over William of Ockham
William of Ockham, OFM (; also Occam, from la, Gulielmus Occamus; 1287 – 10 April 1347) was an English Franciscan friar, scholastic philosopher, apologist, and Catholic theologian, who is believed to have been born in Ockham, a small vi ...
to his cause. Several prelates and princes wrote to the pope on Cesena's behalf. In the following year, Cesena, Ockham and a few other high-ranking Franciscans fled from the papal court. They had apparently wished to seek the protection of King Robert of Naples (who favored their views), but a storm on the Mediterranean forced their galley back to the port of Aigues-Mortes, where they transferred to another ship manned by agents of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor and were taken to Pisa
Pisa ( , or ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, central Italy, straddling the Arno just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for its leaning tower, the ...
.
Deposition
At Pisa they were received by the party of Louis and were joined by a number of other schismatics. John XXII was declared to be deposed by the emperor. Cesena was excommunicated by the Pope.[ He published a solemn appeal from the pope to a council (12 December 1328), posting it on the door of the cathedral.
In 1329 Cesena was deposed from the Franciscan leadership, now controlled by the Pope, and in 1330 left with his followers in the entourage of Louis, for Germany. The general chapter of Paris (11 June 1329), at which Cardinal Bertrand presided, had condemned the conduct and writings of Cesena and all who took part with him against John XXII, and had elected Gerard Odon minister general of the Franciscan Order.
The pope issued the encyclical ''Quia vir reprobus'', warning the faithful against Cesena, and the latter answered in his ''Ad perpetuam rei memoriam innotescat quod ego, Fr. Michael'' (25 November 1330) and in ''Christianæ fidei fundamentum'', in which he accused the pope of heresy in the three Bulls, ''Ad Conditorem Canonum'', ''Cum inter nonnullos'', and ''Quia quorumdam''. These and ''Litteras plurium magistrorum'', and ''Teste Solomone'' which Cesena wrote in his own defence, are contained in Ockham's ''Dialogue''.
]
Later life
The chapter of Perpignan (25 April 1331) expelled him from the order and sentenced him to perpetual imprisonment. He continued to struggle for his understanding of evangelical poverty for the rest of his life, and issued an appeal against Benedict XII, who had succeeded John XXII, in 1338. He died in Munich
Munich ( ; german: München ; bar, Minga ) is the capital and most populous city of the German state of Bavaria. With a population of 1,558,395 inhabitants as of 31 July 2020, it is the third-largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Ha ...
, and was buried there in the Franciscan convent, the Barfüsserkirche. He was officially rehabilitated in 1359.
=Cultural references=
Michael of Cesena is one of the historical characters in Umberto Eco's novel '' The Name of the Rose''. Much of his history is recounted through conversations between the main characters William and Adso.
References
Sources
*
External links
''Catholic Encyclopedia'' article
*
* A translation of Michael's ''Shorter Appeal against ''Quia vir reprobus (a tract on Franciscan poverty) can be foun
online
{{Authority control
1270 births
1342 deaths
People from Cesena
Italian Franciscans
13th-century Italian Roman Catholic priests
14th-century Italian Roman Catholic theologians
14th-century Latin writers
14th-century Italian Roman Catholic priests
Ministers General of the Order of Friars Minor