were the

censors Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient". Censorship can be conducted by governments ...

or the inspectors of

Tokugawa shogunate The Tokugawa shogunate (, Japanese 徳川幕府 ''Tokugawa bakufu''), also known as the , was the military government of Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in ...

. They were ''

bakufu , officially , was the title of the military dictators of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, though during part of the Kamakura ...

'' officials ranking somewhat lower than the ''

bugyō was a title assigned to ''samurai'' officials during the feudal period of Japan. ''Bugyō'' is often translated as commissioner, magistrate, or governor, and other terms would be added to the title to describe more specifically a given offici ...

.'' The ''metsuke'' were charged with the special duty of detecting and investigating instances of maladministration, corruption or disaffection anywhere in Japan, and particularly amongst the populace having status below the ''

daimyō were powerful Japanese magnates, feudal lords who, from the 10th century to the early Meiji period in the middle 19th century, ruled most of Japan from their vast, hereditary land holdings. They were subordinate to the shogun and nominall ...

''.Beasley, William G. (1955). ''Select Documents on Japanese Foreign Policy, 1853–1868'', p. 326.

Intelligence gathering

The shogunate recognized the need for some kind of internal intelligence-gathering apparatus and for some degree of covert espionage within its own ranks. It could be said that the ''metsuke'' functioned as the Shogun's intelligence agency or as internal spies, reporting to the officials in

Edo Edo ( ja, , , "bay-entrance" or "estuary"), also romanized as Jedo, Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of Tokyo. Edo, formerly a ''jōkamachi'' (castle town) centered on Edo Castle located in Musashi Province, became the ''de facto'' capital of ...

on events and situations across the country.Cunningham, Don. (2004)
''Taiho-jutsu: Law and Order in the Age of the Samurai,'' p. 39.
/ref> The ''metsuke'' were charged with focusing on those ranking below ''daimyō''-status; and their counterparts, the ''ōmetsuke'', were responsible for supervising the activities of officials and members of the ''

'' (feudal lords). Although similarly engaged, the reporting protocols of the ''metsuke'' and ''ōmetsuke'' differed. The ''metsuke'' reported to ''wakadoshiyori'' who ranked just below the ''

rōjū The , usually translated as ''Elder'', was one of the highest-ranking government posts under the Tokugawa shogunate of Edo period Japan. The term refers either to individual Elders, or to the Council of Elders as a whole; under the first two '' sh� ...

''. The ''ōmetsuke'' reported directly to the four or five ''

'' at the top of the shogunate bureaucracy. By design, the intelligence-gathering activities of the ''metsuke'' was intended to complement those of the ''ōmetsuke'' even though there was no official reporting relationship between the two somewhat independent groups. There were at any given time as many as twenty-four ''metsuke''.

Ad hoc evolution

The bureaucracy of the Tokugawa shogunate expanded on an ''ad hoc'' basis, responding to perceived needs and changing circumstances. Sometimes one or more of the ''metsuke'' or ''ōmetsuke'' would have been selected to address a specific or even a unique problem. For example,

Arao Norimasa is a city in Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan. The city was founded on April 1, 1942. As of March 31, 2017, the city has an estimated population of 53,675, with 24,153 households and a population density of 940 persons per km². The total area i ...

in the period from 1852 through 1854 was charged with special duties as ''kaibo-gakari-metsuke''.Beasley, p. 341. The prefix ''kaibō-gakari'' meaning "in charge of maritime defense" was used with the titles of some ''bakufu'' officials after 1845. This term was used to designate those who bore a special responsibility for overseeing coastal waters, and by implication, for dealing with matters involving foreigners. ''"Kaibō-gakari-metsuke"'' later came to be superseded by the term ''gaikoku-gakari.'' These developments preceded the '' Gaikoku bugyō'' system which began just prior to the negotiations which resulted in the Harris Treaty. First appointed in August 1858, the ''gaikoku-bugyō'' were bakufu officials who were charged with advising the government on foreign affairs and who were tasked with conducting negotiations with foreign diplomats both in Japan and abroad.

In popular culture

The post of ''metsuke'' was, of course, not immune to corruption, and sometimes the conduct of these officials could be affected by bribes. For example, the televised ''

jidaigeki is a genre of film, television, video game, and theatre in Japan. Literally meaning " period dramas", they are most often set during the Edo period of Japanese history, from 1603 to 1868. Some, however, are set much earlier—'' Portrait o ...

'' episodes of '' Abarenbō Shōgun'' are rife with petty corruption, including a broad range of officials across the span of television seasons. ''Metsuke'' also appear as persecutors of

Japanese Christians Christianity in Japan is among the nation's minority religions in terms of individuals who state an explicit affiliation or faith. Between less than 1 percent and 1.5% of the population claims Christian belief or affiliation. Although formally b ...

in the film ''Silence'' (2016). In the video game '' Total War: Shogun 2'', ''metsuke'' are agents tasked with imprisoning or executing operatives of enemy clans, particularly ninja, as well as with overseeing settlements to increase internal security and improve tax collection.

List of metsuke

Matsudaira Chikano The was a Japanese samurai clan that descended from the Minamoto clan. It originated in and took its name from Matsudaira village, in Mikawa Province (modern-day Aichi Prefecture). During the Sengoku period, the chieftain of the main line of ...

(1841–1844)Beasley, p. 335. *

Ido Staohiro Ido () is a constructed language derived from Reformed Esperanto, and similarly designed with the goal of being a universal second language for people of diverse backgrounds. To function as an effective ''international auxiliary language'', ...

(1842–1845) *

Arao Narimasa is a city in Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan. The city was founded on April 1, 1942. As of March 31, 2017, the city has an estimated population of 53,675, with 24,153 households and a population density of 940 persons per km². The total area i ...

(1852–1854) *

Nagai Naomune Nagai may refer to: *Nagai (surname), a Japanese surname *Nagai, Yamagata, a city in Yamagata Prefecture, Japan *An alternative name for Nagapattinam district, Tamil Nadu, India * Nagai (''Star Wars''), a fictional alien race in the ''Star Wars'' f ...

(1853–1858)Beasley, p. 338. * Iwase Tadanari (1854–1858)Beasley, p. 333. * Oguri Tadamasa (1859–1860) * Ikeda Nagaaki (1862–1863, 1863) *

Kawada Hiroshi , also read as Kawata, is a common Japanese surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Atsuko Kawada (born 1965), Japanese actress *Jun Kawada, poet *Junko Kawada (born 1974), J-pop singer *, Japanese footballer * Mami Kawada, J-pop singer ...

(1864)Beasley, p. 334. *

Kurimoto Sebei Kurimoto (written: 栗本) is a Japanese surname. Notable people with the surname include: *, pen name of Sumiyo Imaoka, Japanese writer *, Japanese naturalist, zoologist and entomologist *, Japanese writer and politician See also *Kurimoto, Chiba ...

(1864–1865)

Notes

References

* Beasley, William G. (1955)
Documents on Japanese Foreign Policy, 1853-1868.''
London:

Oxford University Press Oxford University Press (OUP) is the university press of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world, and its printing history dates back to the 1480s. Having been officially granted the legal right to print book ...

. eprinted by RoutledgeCurzon, London, 2001. (cloth)">RoutledgeCurzon.html" ;"title="eprinted by RoutledgeCurzon">eprinted by RoutledgeCurzon, London, 2001. (cloth)* Cullen, L.M. (2003). ''A History of Japan, 1582-1941: Internal and External Worlds.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (cloth), (paper) * Cunningham, Don. (2004)
''Taiho-jutsu: Law and Order in the Age of the Samurai.''
Tokyo:

Tuttle Publishing Tuttle Publishing, originally the Charles E. Tuttle Company, is a book publishing company that includes Tuttle, Periplus Editions, and Journey Editions.

. * Sansom, George Bailey. (1963). "A History of Japan: 1615-1867." Stanford:

Stanford University Press Stanford University Press (SUP) is the publishing house of Stanford University. It is one of the oldest academic presses in the United States and the first university press to be established on the West Coast. It was among the presses officiall ...