![Metronome Nikko](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Metronome_Nikko.jpg)
A metronome, from
ancient Greek
Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic peri ...
μέτρον (''métron'', "measure") and νομός (nomós, "custom", "melody") is a device that produces an audible click or other sound at a regular interval that can be set by the user, typically in
beats per minute (BPM). Metronomes may include synchronized visual motion. Musicians use the device to practise playing to a regular
pulse
In medicine, a pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the cardiac cycle (heartbeat) by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed near the surface of the body, such as at the nec ...
.
A kind of metronome was among the inventions of
Andalusian polymath
A polymath ( el, πολυμαθής, , "having learned much"; la, homo universalis, "universal human") is an individual whose knowledge spans a substantial number of subjects, known to draw on complex bodies of knowledge to solve specific pro ...
Abbas ibn Firnas
Abu al-Qasim Abbas ibn Firnas ibn Wirdas al-Takurini ( ar, أبو القاسم عباس بن فرناس بن ورداس التاكرني; c. 809/810 – 887 A.D.), also known as Abbas ibn Firnas ( ar, عباس ابن فرناس), Latinized Armen ...
(810–887). In 1815, German inventor
Johann Maelzel
A metronome by Maelzel, Paris, 1815.
Johann Nepomuk Maelzel (or Mälzel; August 15, 1772 – July 21, 1838) was a German inventor, engineer, and showman, best known for manufacturing a metronome and several music-playing automatons, and displayi ...
patented his mechanical, wind-up metronome as a tool for musicians, under the title "Instrument/Machine for the Improvement of all Musical Performance, called Metronome".
In the 20th century, electronic metronomes and software metronomes were invented.
Musicians practise with metronomes to improve their timing, especially the ability to stick to a regular
tempo
In musical terminology, tempo (Italian, 'time'; plural ''tempos'', or ''tempi'' from the Italian plural) is the speed or pace of a given piece. In classical music, tempo is typically indicated with an instruction at the start of a piece (often ...
. Metronome practice helps internalize a clear sense of timing and tempo.
Composers
A composer is a person who writes music. The term is especially used to indicate composers of Classical music, Western classical music, or those who are composers by occupation. Many composers are, or were, also skilled performers of music.
E ...
and conductors often use a metronome as a standard tempo reference—and may play, sing, or conduct to the metronome. The metronome is used by composers to derive beats per minute if they want to indicate that in a composition. Conductors use a metronome to note their preferred tempo in each section.
When interpreting emotion and other qualities in music, performers seldom play exactly on every beat; expressive, flexible
rubato Tempo rubato (, , ; 'free in the presentation', literally ) is a musical term referring to expressive and rhythmic freedom by a slight speeding up and then slowing down of the tempo of a piece at the discretion of the soloist or the conductor. Rub ...
may be used at times. Typically, every beat of a musically expressive performance does not align exactly with each click of a metronome.
[Andrew Robertson]
"Decoding tempo and timing variations in music recordings from beat annotations"
. Proceedings of the 13th International Society for Music Information Retrieval Conference (ISMIR 2012).[Alexander Bonus]
"The Metronomic Performance Practice: A History of Rhythm, Metronomes, and the Mechanization of Musicality"
PhD thesis, May 2010. This has led some musicians to criticize use of a metronome, because ''metronome time'' is different from ''musical time''.
Etymology
The word ''metronome'' first appeared in English in 1815, and is Greek in origin, derived from ''metron—''"measure" and ''nomos—''"regulating, law". The patent registered by Maelzel in London refers to the instrument as "metronome or musical time-keeper".
History
![Wittner metronome](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Wittner_metronome.jpg)
According to
Lynn Townsend White Jr.
Lynn Townsend White Jr. (April 29, 1907 – March 30, 1987) was an American historian. He was a professor of Middle Ages, medieval history at Princeton University, Princeton from 1933 to 1937, and at Stanford University, Stanford from 1937 to 194 ...
, Andalusian
inventor
An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition, idea or process. An invention may be an improvement upon a machine, product, or process for increasing efficiency or lowering cost. It may also be an entirely new concept. If an ...
Abbas Ibn Firnas made an attempt at creating a metronome.
Lynn Townsend White Jr.
Lynn Townsend White Jr. (April 29, 1907 – March 30, 1987) was an American historian. He was a professor of Middle Ages, medieval history at Princeton University, Princeton from 1933 to 1937, and at Stanford University, Stanford from 1937 to 194 ...
(Spring, 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", ''Technology and Culture
''Technology and Culture'' is a quarterly academic journal founded in 1959. It is an official publication of the Society for the History of Technology (SHOT), whose members routinely refer to it as "T&C." Besides scholarly articles and critical e ...
'' 2 (2), p. 97–111 00 "Ibn Firnas was a polymath: a physician
A physician (American English), medical practitioner (Commonwealth English), medical doctor, or simply doctor, is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through th ...
, a rather bad poet
A poet is a person who studies and creates poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others. A poet may simply be the creator ( thinker, songwriter, writer, or author) who creates (composes) poems (oral or writte ...
, the first to make glass
Glass is a non-crystalline, often transparent, amorphous solid that has widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optics. Glass is most often formed by rapid cooling (quenching) of ...
from stones
In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks form the Earth's o ...
(quartz
Quartz is a hard, crystalline mineral composed of silica (silicon dioxide). The atoms are linked in a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall chemical form ...
), a student of music
Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive content. Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world, though it is an aspect ...
, and inventor of some sort of metronome."
Galileo Galilei
Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642) was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, sometimes described as a polymath. Commonly referred to as Galileo, his name was pronounced (, ). He was ...
first studied and discovered concepts involving the
pendulum
A pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing freely. When a pendulum is displaced sideways from its resting, equilibrium position, it is subject to a restoring force due to gravity that will accelerate it back toward the ...
in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In 1696,
Etienne Loulié first successfully used an adjustable pendulum to make the first mechanical metronome—however, his design produced no sound, and did not have an
escapement
An escapement is a mechanical linkage in mechanical watches and clocks that gives impulses to the timekeeping element and periodically releases the gear train to move forward, advancing the clock's hands. The impulse action transfers energy to ...
to keep the pendulum in motion.
To get the correct pulse with this kind of visual device, the musician watches the pendulum as if watching a conductor's baton.
The more familiar mechanical musical chronometer was invented by
Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel
Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel (1777 – 28 September 1826) was the inventor of the first successful metronome. He also invented the componium, an "automatic instrument" that could make endless variations on a musical theme.
Winkel was born in Lipp ...
in
Amsterdam
Amsterdam ( , , , lit. ''The Dam on the River Amstel'') is the Capital of the Netherlands, capital and Municipalities of the Netherlands, most populous city of the Netherlands, with The Hague being the seat of government. It has a population ...
in 1814. Through questionable practice,
Johann Maelzel
A metronome by Maelzel, Paris, 1815.
Johann Nepomuk Maelzel (or Mälzel; August 15, 1772 – July 21, 1838) was a German inventor, engineer, and showman, best known for manufacturing a metronome and several music-playing automatons, and displayi ...
, incorporating Winkel's ideas, added a scale, called it a metronome and started manufacturing the metronome under his own name in 1816: "Maelzel's Metronome." The original text of Maelzel's patent in England (1815) can be downloaded.
[Maelzel's patent of the Metronome]
The Repertory of patent inventions: and other discoveries and improvements in arts, manufactures, and agriculture ... published by T. and G. Underwood, 1818
alternative
Ludwig van Beethoven
Ludwig van Beethoven (baptised 17 December 177026 March 1827) was a German composer and pianist. Beethoven remains one of the most admired composers in the history of Western music; his works rank amongst the most performed of the classical ...
was perhaps the first notable composer to indicate specific metronome markings in his music. This was done in 1815, with the corrected copy of the score of the Cantata op. 112 containing Beethoven's first metronome mark.
Usage
Musician
A musician is a person who composes, conducts, or performs music. According to the United States Employment Service, "musician" is a general term used to designate one who follows music as a profession. Musicians include songwriters who wri ...
s practise playing to metronomes to develop and maintain a sense of timing and tempo. Metronomes are also used as a training tool to increase performance speed. Tempo is almost always measured in beats per minute (BPM). Even pieces that do not require a strictly constant tempo (such as with rubato) sometimes provide a BPM marking to indicate the general tempo.
A tempo marking is a term that conveys a narrow range of tempos and an associated character. For example, the term "Vivace" can indicate a tempo between 156 and 176 BPM, but it also communicates that the music should be played with a lively character. Metronomes will often include both BPM and tempo markings.
A hardware (non-software/non-app based) metronome's tempo typically is adjustable from 40 to 208 BPM. The most common arrangement of tempos on a Maelzel metronome begins with at 40 beats per minute
and increases by 2s:
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
then by 3s:
63
66
69
72
then by 4s:
72
76
80
84
88
92
96
100
104
108
112
116
120
then by 6s:
126
132
138
144
then by 8s:
144
152
160
168
176
184
192
200
208.
Some digital metronomes allow adjustment to more precise tempos (e.g. increasing 120 to 121), but such a difference is hardly perceptible.
[
Another mark that denotes tempo is M.M. (or MM), or Mälzel's Metronome. The notation M.M. is often followed by a note value and a number that indicates the tempo, as in .
Specific uses include learning to play tempos and beats consistently—for example, one fighting a tendency to speed up might play a phrase repeatedly while slightly slowing the BPM setting each time (to play more steadily)—and practising technique by setting the metronome progressively to higher speeds until the desired speed is achieved. This also helps to expose slow-downs due to technical challenges. Additionally, recording musicians use ]click track
A click track is a series of audio cues used to synchronize sound recordings, sometimes for synchronization to a moving image. The click track originated in early sound movies, where optical marks were made on the film to indicate precise timin ...
s from metronomes to help audio engineer
An audio engineer (also known as a sound engineer or recording engineer) helps to produce a recording or a live performance, balancing and adjusting sound sources using equalization, dynamics processing and audio effects, mixing, reproduction, ...
s synchronize audio tracks.
In research, metronomes can be used to maintain desired cadences in different physiological laboratory-based tests.
Types of metronomes
Mechanical metronomes
A mechanical metronome uses an adjustable weight on the end of an inverted pendulum
A pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing freely. When a pendulum is displaced sideways from its resting, equilibrium position, it is subject to a restoring force due to gravity that will accelerate it back toward the ...
rod to control tempo. The weight slides up the pendulum rod to decrease tempo, or down to increase tempo. (This mechanism is also called a double-weighted pendulum, because there is a second, fixed weight on the other side of the pendulum pivot, inside the metronome case.) The pendulum
A pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing freely. When a pendulum is displaced sideways from its resting, equilibrium position, it is subject to a restoring force due to gravity that will accelerate it back toward the ...
swings back and forth in tempo, while a mechanism inside the metronome produces a clicking sound with each oscillation. Mechanical metronomes do not need a battery
Battery most often refers to:
* Electric battery, a device that provides electrical power
* Battery (crime), a crime involving unlawful physical contact
Battery may also refer to:
Energy source
*Automotive battery, a device to provide power t ...
, but run from a spring
Spring(s) may refer to:
Common uses
* Spring (season), a season of the year
* Spring (device), a mechanical device that stores energy
* Spring (hydrology), a natural source of water
* Spring (mathematics), a geometric surface in the shape of a ...
-wound clockwork
Clockwork refers to the inner workings of either mechanical devices called clocks and watches (where it is also called the movement) or other mechanisms that work similarly, using a series of gears driven by a spring or weight.
A clockwork mec ...
escapement.
Electromechanical metronomes
Electromechanical metronomes were invented by Franz Frederick Franz may refer to:
People
* Franz (given name)
* Franz (surname)
Places
* Franz (crater), a lunar crater
* Franz, Ontario, a railway junction and unorganized town in Canada
* Franz Lake, in the state of Washington, United States – see Fran ...
. Instead of using a clockwork or a quartz crystal
Quartz is a hard, crystalline mineral composed of silica (silicon dioxide). The atoms are linked in a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall chemical form ...
, an electric motor is used to generate power for the mechanism. Most use a mechanical variable-speed drive combination with a momentary switch and a cam wheel to time the beats. Franz and Yamaha were common manufacturers in the 1960s and 1970s, such as the Franz LB4. A common optional feature was a neon
Neon is a chemical element with the symbol Ne and atomic number 10. It is a noble gas. Neon is a colorless, odorless, inert monatomic gas under standard conditions, with about two-thirds the density of air. It was discovered (along with krypton ...
lamp which lights up in time with the beat. Very few electromechanical metronomes provide time signature
The time signature (also known as meter signature, metre signature, or measure signature) is a notational convention used in Western musical notation to specify how many beats (pulses) are contained in each measure (bar), and which note value ...
chimes in addition to the basic tempo.
Electronic metronomes
Most modern metronomes are electronic
Electronic may refer to:
*Electronics, the science of how to control electric energy in semiconductor
* ''Electronics'' (magazine), a defunct American trade journal
*Electronic storage, the storage of data using an electronic device
*Electronic co ...
and use a quartz crystal to maintain accuracy, comparable to those used in wristwatches. The simplest electronic metronomes have a dial or buttons to control the tempo; some also produce tuning notes, usually around the range of A440 A440 or A-440 may refer to:
* A440 (pitch standard)
* A440 highway (Australia), a road in Victoria, Australia
* Quebec Autoroute 440 (Laval)
* Quebec Autoroute 440 (Quebec City)
See also
* Apollo 440
Apollo 440 (also known as Apollo Four Fo ...
(440 hertz
The hertz (symbol: Hz) is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI), equivalent to one event (or cycle) per second. The hertz is an SI derived unit whose expression in terms of SI base units is s−1, meaning that on ...
). Sophisticated metronomes can produce two or more distinct sounds. Tones can differ in pitch, volume, and/or timbre to demarcate downbeats from other beats, as well as compound
Compound may refer to:
Architecture and built environments
* Compound (enclosure), a cluster of buildings having a shared purpose, usually inside a fence or wall
** Compound (fortification), a version of the above fortified with defensive struct ...
and complex
Complex commonly refers to:
* Complexity, the behaviour of a system whose components interact in multiple ways so possible interactions are difficult to describe
** Complex system, a system composed of many components which may interact with each ...
time signatures.
Many electronic musical keyboards have built-in metronome functions.
Software metronomes
Software metronomes run either as standalone applications on computers and smartphones, or in music sequencing and audio multitrack software packages. In recording studio
A recording studio is a specialized facility for sound recording, mixing, and audio production of instrumental or vocal musical performances, spoken words, and other sounds. They range in size from a small in-home project studio large enoug ...
applications, such as film scoring
A film score is original music written specifically to accompany a film. The score comprises a number of orchestral, instrumental, or choral pieces called cues, which are timed to begin and end at specific points during the film in order to e ...
, a software metronome may provide a click track
A click track is a series of audio cues used to synchronize sound recordings, sometimes for synchronization to a moving image. The click track originated in early sound movies, where optical marks were made on the film to indicate precise timin ...
to synchronize musicians.
Metronome applications and click tracks
Users of iPod
The iPod is a discontinued series of portable media players and multi-purpose mobile devices designed and marketed by Apple Inc. The first version was released on October 23, 2001, about months after the Macintosh version of iTunes ...
s and other portable MP3 player
A portable media player (PMP) (also including the related digital audio player (DAP)) is a portable consumer electronics device capable of storing and playing digital media such as audio, images, and video files. The data is typically stored o ...
s can use prerecorded MP3 metronome click tracks, which can use different sounds and samples instead of the usual metronome beep. Users of smartphones can install a wide range of metronome applications. The Google search engine includes an interactive metronome that can play between 40 and 218 BPM. Either method avoids the need to bring a physical metronome along to lessons or practice sessions.
Use of the metronome as an instrument
Perhaps the most famous, and most direct, use of the metronome as an instrument is György Ligeti
György Sándor Ligeti (; ; 28 May 1923 – 12 June 2006) was a Hungarian-Austrian composer of contemporary classical music. He has been described as "one of the most important avant-garde composers in the latter half of the twentieth century" ...
's 1962 composition, '' Poème Symphonique for 100 metronomes''. Two years earlier, Toshi Ichiyanagi
was a Japanese avant-garde composer and pianist. One of the leading composers in Japan during the postwar era, Ichiyanagi worked in a range of genres, composing Western-style operas and orchestral and chamber works, as well as compositions using ...
wrote ''Music for Electric Metronomes
''Music for Electric Metronomes'' is an avant-garde aleatoric composition written in 1960 by Japanese composer Toshi Ichiyanagi for any number of performers between three and eight. The piece involves the manipulation of electric metronomes, follo ...
''. Maurice Ravel
Joseph Maurice Ravel (7 March 1875 – 28 December 1937) was a French composer, pianist and conductor. He is often associated with Impressionism along with his elder contemporary Claude Debussy, although both composers rejected the term. In ...
used three metronomes at different speeds for the opening of his opera ''L'heure espagnole
''L'heure espagnole'' is a French one-act opera from 1911, described as a ''comédie musicale'', with music by Maurice Ravel to a French libretto by Franc-Nohain, based on Franc-Nohain's 1904 play ('comédie-bouffe') of the same nameStoullig E. '' ...
'' (1911).
The clicking sounds of mechanical metronomes have sometimes been used to provide a soft rhythm
Rhythm (from Greek , ''rhythmos'', "any regular recurring motion, symmetry") generally means a " movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions". This general meaning of regular recu ...
track without using any of the usual percussion
A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater including attached or enclosed beaters or rattles struck, scraped or rubbed by hand or struck against another similar instrument. Exc ...
instruments. Paul McCartney
Sir James Paul McCartney (born 18 June 1942) is an English singer, songwriter and musician who gained worldwide fame with the Beatles, for whom he played bass guitar and shared primary songwriting and lead vocal duties with John Lennon. One ...
did this on "Distractions" (''Flowers in the Dirt
''Flowers in the Dirt'' is the eighth studio solo album by Paul McCartney. The album was released on 5 June 1989 on Parlophone, as he was embarking on his first world tour since the Wings Over the World tour in 1975–76. It earned McCartney some ...
''). Following the metronome, McCartney performed a rhythm track by hitting various parts of his body. Also, in Ennio Morricone
Ennio Morricone (; 10 November 19286 July 2020) was an Italian composer, orchestrator, conductor, and trumpeter who wrote music in a wide range of styles. With more than 400 scores for cinema and television, as well as more than 100 classica ...
's theme "Farewell to Cheyenne" (featured on ''Once Upon a Time in the West
''Once Upon a Time in the West'' ( , "Once upon a time (there was) the West") is a 1968 epic Spaghetti Western film directed by Sergio Leone, who co-wrote it with Sergio Donati based on a story by Dario Argento, Bernardo Bertolucci, and Leone ...
''), the steady clip-clop beat is provided by the deliberately distorted and slowed-down sound of a mechanical metronome.
William Kentridge
William Kentridge (born 28 April 1955) is a South African artist best known for his prints, drawings, and animated films, especially noted for a sequence of hand-drawn animated films he produced during the 1990s. The latter are constructed by ...
's "The Refusal of Time" (2012) features five metronomes in the video installation.
Reception
Positive views
The metronome is usually positively viewed by performers, musicologist
Musicology (from Greek μουσική ''mousikē'' 'music' and -λογια ''-logia'', 'domain of study') is the scholarly analysis and research-based study of music. Musicology departments traditionally belong to the humanities, although some mu ...
s (who spend considerable time analysing metronome markings), teachers, and conservatories. It is considered an excellent practice tool because of its steady beat, being "mathematically perfect and categorically correct".[ This removes guesswork and aids musicians in various ways, including keeping tempos, countering tendencies to slow down or speed up, and increasing evenness and accuracy, especially in rapid passages. Metronomes are thus commonly used at all skill levels—both by students and professional musicians.] Likewise, the use of the metronome is valued in learning various genres with various tempos, but may not be sufficient for more complex rhythms. Nevertheless, the steady tempo (that helps identifying when one is playing offbeat) is hailed as an invaluable resource; in his doctoral thesis, Aaron M. Farrell described the metronome as a "perfect chamber music partner".[A Practical Guide To Twentieth-Century Violin Etudes With Performance And Theoretical Analysis]
; by Aaron M. Farrell As a result, metronomes are often recommended to music students without reservation.
Various quotations in favour of the metronome can be found in the book ''Metronome Techniques: Potpourri of quotations''.
Strict rhythm: modern performance practice
The metronome has been very important in performance practice, and largely unquestioned in musical pedagogy or scholarship, since the 20th century.[Refashioning Rhythm: Hearing, Acting and Reacting to Metronomic Sound in Experimental Psychology and Beyond, c.1875–1920]
by Alexander Bonus (se
also
Author Miles Hoffman said that "most music teachers consider the metronome indispensable, and most professional musicians, in fact, continue to practice with a metronome throughout their careers".
Author Bruce Haynes describes the role of the metronome in modern style in detail in his book ''The end of early music'', for metronomic practice is now common worldwide. He emphasizes that modern style is much more rhythmically rigid, in that tempo is steady and scores are read very literally, sometimes perceived as devoid of emotion in contrast to the rubato and bluster characteristic of Romantic music
Romantic music is a stylistic movement in Western Classical music associated with the period of the 19th century commonly referred to as the Romantic era (or Romantic period). It is closely related to the broader concept of Romanticism—the ...
. Because of this, American musicologist and critic Richard Taruskin
Richard Filler Taruskin (April 2, 1945 – July 1, 2022) was an American musicologist and music critic who was among the leading and most prominent music historians of his generation. The breadth of his scrutiny into source material as well as ...
calls Modernism "refuge in order and precision, hostility to subjectivity, to the vagaries of personality," noting its order and precision.[The end of early music: a period performer's history of music for the twenty-first century]
; page 49; (Oxford University Press) by Bruce Haynes These qualities give rise to the term ''metronomic'', which critics
A critic is a person who communicates an assessment and an opinion of various forms of creative works such as art, literature, music, cinema, theater, fashion, architecture, and food. Critics may also take as their subject social or governmen ...
use to describe more modern music with an unyielding tempo, mechanical rhythmic approach, and equal stress to all subintervals; American violinist Sol Babitz
Sol Babitz (October 11, 1911 – 1982) was an American violinist, musicologist, teacher, writer, and pioneer of historically informed performance. He married artist Mae Babitz in 1942 and had two daughters, artist and writer Eve Babitz born in 194 ...
considered it "sewing machine" style with limited flexibility. American musician Robert Hill also commented on the predictably regular beat characteristic of Modernism; he describes a trade-off, in that "we compensate our lack of timing flexibility by a very highly developed sense of tone-color and dynamic which, however refined and polished it may be, tends to abstract and de-personalize the music-making, underscoring its absoluteness". He also notes this as having changed greatly from the "standard" classical repertoire of the 19th century.[''"Overcoming Romanticism": On the modernization of twentieth century performance practice'' by (Chapter 3 contribution t]
''Music and Performance During the Weimar Republic''
; Cambridge University Press; November 2005)
In the early 19th century, the metronome was not used for ticking all through a piece, but only to check the tempo and then set it aside. This is in great contrast with many musicians today, who use the metronome in the background for the entirety of a piece of music.
Some writers draw parallels between a modern society that is "ordered by the clock" and what they see as metronomic performance practice of today's musicians.
While this section highlights the modern trends of strict mechanical performance as something widespread in the 20th century and now, as early as 1860, some people advocated this type of "modern" performance practice. While some in the 19th century welcomed the metronome, others were critical (see below).
Criticism
One of the underlying reasons for much early criticism may have been the fact that unlike traditional Italian tempo indications, metronome marks indicate a highly specific tempo, and are not easily reinterpreted in the way that the traditional Italian tempo indications are. Changes in aesthetics or in the instruments themselves can easily make speeds indicated earlier problematic, which may explain why many notable nineteenth-century composers including Felix Mendelssohn
Jakob Ludwig Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (3 February 18094 November 1847), born and widely known as Felix Mendelssohn, was a German composer, pianist, organist and conductor of the early Romantic period. Mendelssohn's compositions include sy ...
, Richard Wagner
Wilhelm Richard Wagner ( ; ; 22 May 181313 February 1883) was a German composer, theatre director, polemicist, and conductor who is chiefly known for his operas (or, as some of his mature works were later known, "music dramas"). Unlike most op ...
, Giuseppe Verdi
Giuseppe Fortunino Francesco Verdi (; 9 or 10 October 1813 – 27 January 1901) was an Italian composer best known for his operas. He was born near Busseto to a provincial family of moderate means, receiving a musical education with the h ...
, and Johannes Brahms
Johannes Brahms (; 7 May 1833 – 3 April 1897) was a German composer, pianist, and conductor of the mid- Romantic period. Born in Hamburg into a Lutheran family, he spent much of his professional life in Vienna. He is sometimes grouped wit ...
criticized use of the metronome.
A metronome only provides a fixed, rigid, continuous pulse. Therefore, metronome markings on sheet music
Sheet music is a handwritten or printed form of musical notation that uses List of musical symbols, musical symbols to indicate the pitches, rhythms, or chord (music), chords of a song or instrumental Musical composition, musical piece. Like ...
provide a reference, but cannot accurately communicate the pulse
In medicine, a pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the cardiac cycle (heartbeat) by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed near the surface of the body, such as at the nec ...
, swing
Swing or swinging may refer to:
Apparatus
* Swing (seat), a hanging seat that swings back and forth
* Pendulum, an object that swings
* Russian swing, a swing-like circus apparatus
* Sex swing, a type of harness for sexual intercourse
* Swing rid ...
, or groove
Groove or Grooves may refer to:
Music
* Groove (music)
* Groove (drumming)
* The Groove (band), an Australian rock/pop band of the 1960s
* The Groove (Sirius XM), a US radio station
* Groove 101.7FM, a former Perth, Australia, radio station
* ...
of music. The pulse is often irregular, e.g., in accelerando, rallentando, or in musical expression as in phrasing (rubato, ''etc''.).
Some argue that a metronomic performance stands in conflict with an expressive culturally-aware performance of music, so that a metronome a very limited tool in this respect. Even such highly rhythmical musical forms as samba
Samba (), also known as samba urbano carioca (''urban Carioca samba'') or simply samba carioca (''Carioca samba''), is a Brazilian music genre that originated in the Afro-Brazilian communities of Rio de Janeiro in the early 20th century. Havin ...
, if performed in correct cultural style, cannot be captured with the beats of a metronome; the steady beat of a metronome neglects the characteristic swing of samba.[Understanding the Samba Groove](_blank)
by Pedro Batista
A style of performance that is unfailingly regular rhythmically might be criticized as being ''metronomic''.
Others argue that the metronome has no musical value, instead costing creativity and hurting the sense of rhythm in musicians rather than helping it. The use of a metronome has been compared to the difference between mechanically-aided and freehand drawing, in that the output with a metronome is said to be rigid and lacking creativity. Similarly, the controllable constant speed and rigid repetition of a metronome has been described as possibly costing internal rhythm and musicality when abused or overused. This contrasts with those who advocate its use as a training tool and exercises to cultivate a sense of rhythm.
American composer and critic Daniel Gregory Mason
Daniel Gregory Mason (November 20, 1873 – December 4, 1953) was an American composer and music critic.
Biography
Mason was born in Brookline, Massachusetts. He came from a long line of notable American musicians, including his father Henry Ma ...
wrote that the use of the metronome is "dangerous" because it leads musicians to play by the measure or beat instead of the phrase
In syntax and grammar, a phrase is a group of words or singular word acting as a grammatical unit. For instance, the English expression "the very happy squirrel" is a noun phrase which contains the adjective phrase "very happy". Phrases can consi ...
, at the expense of liveliness, instinct, and rhythmical energy. He references that "good performances" commonly feature retardations and accelerations, in contrast to the steady beat of a metronome. This opinion has also been expressed by music teachers; for example, teacher Jennifer Merry relates the steady beat of a metronome to the structure of contemporary popular music, and says that both factors hinder understanding of rhythm and tempo in young children. These criticisms emphasize the importance of intuition, nuances, and style, rather than the rigid, steady beat of a metronome.
Metronome technique
Metronome technique is extensive and has been the subject of several books.[Frederick Franz, revised by Jon Truelso]
Metronome Techniques
This section summarizes some of the main ideas and approaches. The "intuitive" approach to metronome practice is to simply play along with a metronome. With metronome technique, musicians do separate exercises to strengthen and steady their sense of rhythm and tempo, and increase their sensitivity to musical time and precision.
Playing "in the pocket"
The basic skill required is the ability to play precisely in the pocket—that is, exactly on the click of the metronome—with the metronome in a relaxed fashion. It helps musicians instil a more accurate sense of time clearly and precisely, at intervals corresponding to fractions of a second. One challenge with this approach, especially for pianists and percussionists, is the metronome click seeming to vanish (or at least be heard less distinctly) when one hits the click exactly. Musicians who attempt to play in the pocket with a metronome without established technique may find that it introduces tension and effort into their instrument technique.
To address these difficulties, musicians start by learning to play consistently ahead or behind the beat whenever they want to. As a result, they develop a clear sense of "where the click is" and can train to hit the click as well.
Musicians also listen to how the sound of their playing merges with the metronome to create a new sound when playing precisely in the pocket. Various approaches suggest that by listening in this way (and through other exercises), it is possible to play precisely in the pocket with the metronome in a relaxed fashion. While learning how to play in the pocket, musicians also work on flexibility and the ability to play precisely anywhere in the beat (as in more complex rhythms).
Precision of timing and sensitivity to musical time
Much of modern metronome technique involves various methods to help resolve timing problems. It aims to encourage and develop a clear sense of musical time and to help with the nuances and precision of timing, but at the same time must avoid creating overdependence on the metronome. Many exercises are used to help with precision of timing and sensitivity to time, such as maintaining the beat (staying in time) while the metronome is silent for longer periods of time, and playing displaced clicks or polyrhythm
Polyrhythm is the simultaneous use of two or more rhythms that are not readily perceived as deriving from one another, or as simple manifestations of the same meter. The rhythmic layers may be the basis of an entire piece of music (cross-rhyth ...
s over the metronome.
Musically expressive rhythms
Modern metronome technique addresses expressive musical rhythms in many ways. For instance, much of the focus of modern metronome technique is on encouraging and developing a solid sense of tempo and timing, in both thinking and playing; as a result, one will be more rhythmically conscious.
Special metronome exercises are used to help keep this fluid sense of rhythm and timing when working with the metronome. Some commonly referenced exercises include drifting gradually from one beat to the next, playing beats ahead or behind the click (to become comfortable with playing anywhere relative to the metronome click), and starting from a pulse unison before gradually pushing notes ahead of the click and then pulling back again to pulse unison (or conversely, first pulling behind the pulse).
Author Andrew Lewis stated that one can also develop a higher level of awareness of the many natural rhythms in their everyday life, and use exercises to help bring those rhythms into their music.[Andrew Lewi]
Book 2: How to Improve your Sense of Rhythm
– see the section on "Improving Pulse and Rhythm Through Motion and Action" particularly Likewise, author Mac Santiago emphasizes that use of a metronome helps to improve one's sense of time and exact timing without causing any of the expected problems for musicality and expressive timing, and rhythm itself is natural to human beings (though an exact sense of the passage of time is not) but must be trained for use in music. Santiago's book states:
Lewis also says in his book that increasing sensitivity to rhythm is essential to develop greater precision of timing and a clearer sense of the passage of musical time—relative to which musicians can then use expressive, natural and fluid rhythms, with as much rubato and tempo variance as they wish for. Lewis' book states:
Alternatives to metronome use
If a musician decides not to use a metronome, other methods are required to deal with timing and tempo glitches, and rushing and dragging. These ideas may also be useful as a complementary approach along with metronome technique.
Humans rely on a sense of rhythm to perform ordinary activities such as walking, running, hammering nails or chopping vegetables. Even speech and thought have a rhythm of sorts. According to author Andrew Lewis, one way to work on rhythms is to work on bringing these into music, becoming a "rhythm antenna".[Andrew Lewi]
Rhythm – What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It
, book II How to Improve Your Sense of Rhythm – A practical step-by-step guide to developing and strengthening rhythm and inner pulse, page 55 "Improving Pulse and Rhythm Using Nature and Aspects of Daily Life" Until the 19th century in Europe, people used to sing as they worked, in time to the rhythms of their work. Musical rhythms were part of daily life; English musician Cecil Sharp
Cecil James Sharp (22 November 1859 – 23 June 1924) was an English-born collector of folk songs, folk dances and instrumental music, as well as a lecturer, teacher, composer and musician. He was the pre-eminent activist in the development of t ...
collected some of these songs before they were forgotten. (See also work song
A work song is a piece of music closely connected to a form of work, either sung while conducting a task (usually to coordinate timing) or a song linked to a task which might be a connected narrative, description, or protest song.
Definitions and ...
and sea shanties
A sea shanty, chantey, or chanty () is a genre of traditional Folk music, folk song that was once commonly sung as a work song to accompany rhythmical labor aboard large Merchant vessel, merchant Sailing ship, sailing vessels. The term ''shanty ...
.) In many parts of the world, music remains an important part of daily life. There are many accounts of people (especially tribal people) who sing frequently and spontaneously in their daily life, as they work, and as they engage in other activities. For example:
Musicians may also work on strengthening their sense of pulse using inner sources, such as breath and subdividing breaths, or instead work with the imagination, imagining a pulse. They may also work with their heart beat, and rhythms in their chest muscles in the same way. Another thing they do is to play music in their mind's ear along with the rhythms of walking or other daily life rhythms. Other techniques include hearing music in one's mind first before playing it. Musicians can deal with timing and tempo glitches by learning to hear a perfect performance in their mind first.
In some styles of music, such as early music notes inégales
In music, ''notes inégales'' is a performance practice, mainly from the Baroque and Classical music eras, in which some notes with equal written time values are performed with unequal durations, usually as alternating long and short. The pra ...
(according to one minority view interpretation), it can be appropriate to use a different approach that does not work so much with a sense of inner pulse, but rather works on ideas of gestures and is more closely related to rhythms of speech and poetry.
Some ideas are given by Marianne Ploger and Keith Hill in ''The Craft of Musical Communication''.[ They state that notes should be subtly unequal—having no three notes the same helps to keep the music alive and interesting, in contrast to something that could be perceived as rigid and monotonous, and helps prevent any feeling of sameness and boredom in the music— the idea of "Entasis". Notes and musical phrases can also be organized in gestures—particular patterns of rhythm that come naturally—rather than strict ]measure
Measure may refer to:
* Measurement, the assignment of a number to a characteristic of an object or event
Law
* Ballot measure, proposed legislation in the United States
* Church of England Measure, legislation of the Church of England
* Mea ...
s. Another alternative is delaying individual notes, such as waiting slightly longer to play the notes expected at the end of a musical phrase, building anticipation
Anticipation is an emotion involving pleasure or anxiety in considering or awaiting an expected event. Anticipatory emotions include fear, anxiety, hope and trust. When the anticipated event fails to occur, it results in disappointment (if posi ...
. Additionally, notes played together can be allowed to go somewhat out of time with each other in a care-free fashion "sans souci"—this can create a feeling of "relaxed effortlessness" when notes are deliberately played irregularly (compared to what is notated in the score).[Marianne Ploger and Keith Hil]
The Craft of Musical Communication
Orphei Organi Antiqui 2005
This is a minority view on interpretation of this style of music, but noteworthy because of its different approach to musical time and rhythm, and its relevance to the way rhythms can be practised. The more generally accepted view is that notes inégales were played with the same amount of swing
Swing or swinging may refer to:
Apparatus
* Swing (seat), a hanging seat that swings back and forth
* Pendulum, an object that swings
* Russian swing, a swing-like circus apparatus
* Sex swing, a type of harness for sexual intercourse
* Swing rid ...
nearly all the time, like modern jazz
Jazz is a music genre that originated in the African-American communities of New Orleans, Louisiana in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with its roots in blues and ragtime. Since the 1920s Jazz Age, it has been recognized as a major ...
.
See also
*Beat (music)
In music and music theory, the beat is the basic unit of time, the pulse (regularly repeating event), of the ''mensural level'' (or ''beat level''). The beat is often defined as the rhythm listeners would tap their toes to when listening to a p ...
*Oscillator
Oscillation is the repetitive or periodic variation, typically in time, of some measure about a central value (often a point of equilibrium) or between two or more different states. Familiar examples of oscillation include a swinging pendulum ...
References
External links
*
*
Online Metronome with accessible version
Online Metronome
* Research by Alexander Evan Bonus
''The Metronomic Performance Practice: A History of Rhythm, Metronomes, and the Mechanization of Musicality''
PhD Thesis by Alexander E. Bonus (May 2010)
''A Timely Musical Discourse, or A Music Treatise from Lost Times, Part I'' (Current Musicology, (95))
by Alexander E. Bonus (March 2013)
''Metronome'' (Oxford Handbooks Online)
by Alexander E. Bonus (April 2014)
''Maelzel, the Metronome, and the Modern Mechanics of Musical Time'' (The Oxford Handbook of Time in Music)
by Alexander E. Bonus (December 2021)
Beethoven's Tempo Indications
PhD Thesis by Marten Noorduin (July 2016)
{{Authority control
Pendulums
1815 introductions
Rhythm and meter
Articles containing video clips