The Meroë Head, or Head of Augustus from Meroë, is a larger-than-life-size

bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus, or metalloids such ...

head depicting the first Roman emperor,

Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pri ...

, that was found in the ancient

Nubia Nubia () (Nobiin: Nobīn, ) is a region along the Nile river encompassing the area between the first cataract of the Nile (just south of Aswan in southern Egypt) and the confluence of the Blue and White Niles (in Khartoum in central Sudan), or ...

n site of

Meroë Meroë (; also spelled ''Meroe''; Meroitic: or ; ar, مرواه, translit=Meruwah and ar, مروي, translit=Meruwi, label=none; grc, Μερόη, translit=Meróē) was an ancient city on the east bank of the Nile about 6 km north-east ...

in modern

Sudan Sudan ( or ; ar, السودان, as-Sūdān, officially the Republic of the Sudan ( ar, جمهورية السودان, link=no, Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān), is a country in Northeast Africa. It shares borders with the Central African Republic t ...

in 1910. Long admired for its striking appearance and perfect proportions, it is now part of the British Museum's collection. It was looted from

Roman Egypt , conventional_long_name = Roman Egypt , common_name = Egypt , subdivision = Province , nation = the Roman Empire , era = Late antiquity , capital = Alexandria , title_leader = Praefectus Augustalis , image_map = Roman E ...

in 24 BC by the forces of queen

Amanirenas Queen Amanirenas (also spelled Amanirena), described by Strabo as being blind in one eye, was queen of the Kingdom of Kush from c. 40 BC to c. 10 BC. Her full title was ''Amnirense qore li kdwe li'' ("Ameniras, qore and kandake"). Meroitic, the in ...

Kush Kush or Cush may refer to: Bible * Cush (Bible), two people and one or more places in the Hebrew Bible Places * Kush (mountain), a mountain near Kalat, Pakistan Balochistan * Kush (satrapy), a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire * Hindu Kush, a m ...

and brought back to Meroe, where it was buried beneath the staircase of a temple.

Discovery and excavation

The head was excavated by the British

archaeologist Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...

John Garstang John Garstang (5 May 1876 – 12 September 1956) was a British archaeologist of the Ancient Near East, especially Egypt, Sudan, Anatolia and the southern Levant. He was the younger brother of Professor Walter Garstang, FRS, a marine biol ...

in December 1910 at Meroë, which had been the capital of the

Kingdom of Kush The Kingdom of Kush (; Egyptian language, Egyptian: 𓎡𓄿𓈙𓈉 ''kꜣš'', Akkadian language, Assyrian: ''Kûsi'', in LXX grc, Κυς and Κυσι ; cop, ''Ecōš''; he, כּוּשׁ ''Kūš'') was an ancient kingdom in Nubia, ce ...

for several centuries. It was found near a mound (M292) under what was once a temple staircase. This was a tremendous find, considering the distance between the Sudan and Rome. The statue had been purposely buried over 1900 years previously, and was well preserved due to the hot, dry conditions. His excavation report states, “Just outside the doorway of this chamber, and buried in a clean pocket of sand wo and a half meters from the surfacethere was a Roman bronze portrait head of heroic size.” Garstang was eager to share his findings with the world, so he shipped it off to London as soon as possible. The bust was donated to the British Museum by the Sudan Excavation Committee with the support of the

National Art Collections Fund Art Fund (formerly the National Art Collections Fund) is an independent membership-based British charity, which raises funds to aid the acquisition of artworks for the nation. It gives grants and acts as a channel for many gifts and bequests, as ...

in 1911.Image and portraiture of Augustus, the Meroë Head
, CityLit.ac.uk, retrieved 21 July 2014 The excavation covered the entire lost city of Meroë. It took two excavations of the area to come across the head. Among other structures, the excavation team uncovered the ruins of a temple of Ammon, the ornately decorated temple in which the head was buried, and two large buildings speculated to be palaces. This large undertaking was financed by the Sudan Excavation Committee, composed of the

National Museum of Scotland The National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh, Scotland, was formed in 2006 with the merger of the new Museum of Scotland, with collections relating to Scottish antiquities, culture and history, and the adjacent Royal Scottish Museum (opened in ...

, the

Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek The Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek ("ny" means "new" in Danish; "Glyptotek" comes from the Greek root ''glyphein'', to carve, and ''theke'', storing place), commonly known simply as Glyptoteket, is an art museum in Copenhagen, Denmark. The collection ...

, and the

Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium The Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium (french: Musées royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, nl, Koninklijke Musea voor Schone Kunsten van België) are a group of art museums in Brussels, Belgium. They include six museums: the Oldmasters Muse ...

. According to Thorston Opper's ''The Meroë Head of Augustus (Objects in Focus)'', the “committee was an international consortium of museum professionals, academics, and wealthy individuals, united by a desire to partake in the thrill of archaeological adventure and a share in the prospective finds.” However, most of the excavation's sponsorship came from a wealthy group of Britons (including pharmaceutics entrepreneur

Henry Solomon Wellcome Sir Henry Solomon Wellcome (August 21, 1853 – July 25, 1936) was an American pharmaceutical entrepreneur. He founded the pharmaceutical company Burroughs Wellcome & Company with his colleague Silas Burroughs in 1880, which is one of the fo ...

) and one avid German collector and scholar – Baron von Bissingen.

Identification

Initial reactions

As soon as the excavators unearthed the head, they immediately knew of its classical Roman origin and speculated that it was from the time of Augustus. Garstang was a specialist in Middle Eastern and Egyptian art, so he conferred with colleagues in Liverpool via mail, and erroneously concluded that it depicted Germanicus, Augustus' great-nephew.

Professor Studniczka

The head was first offered for publication to the expert German Professor

Franz Studniczka Franz Studniczka (14 August 1860 – 4 December 1929) was a German professor of classical archaeology born in Jasło, Galicia. He studied classical archaeology in Vienna as a pupil of Otto Benndorf (1838–1907). In 1887 he received his habil ...

. He, along with the curators at the British Museum in London, proposed that the head portrayed Augustus himself. When compared with the

Augustus of Prima Porta Augustus of Prima Porta ( it, Augusto di Prima Porta) is a full-length portrait statue of Augustus, Augustus Caesar, the first emperor of the Roman Empire. The marble statue stands tall and weighs . The statue was discovered on April 20, 1863, du ...

, there was no doubt it was Augustus' head depicted by the portrait.

Origins

Kushite raids

The head had clearly been hacked off a large statue made in honour of the

Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...

Emperor

. The Greek historian

Strabo Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-sighted that he could see ...

mentions in his chronicles that numerous towns in

Lower Egypt Lower Egypt ( ar, مصر السفلى '; ) is the northernmost region of Egypt, which consists of the fertile Nile Delta between Upper Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea, from El Aiyat, south of modern-day Cairo, and Dahshur. Historically, ...

were adorned with statues of Augustus before an invading

Kushite The Kingdom of Kush (; Egyptian: 𓎡𓄿𓈙𓈉 ''kꜣš'', Assyrian: ''Kûsi'', in LXX grc, Κυς and Κυσι ; cop, ''Ecōš''; he, כּוּשׁ ''Kūš'') was an ancient kingdom in Nubia, centered along the Nile Valley in what i ...

army looted many of them in 24 BC, when Roman forces were away fighting in the Arabian campaign. Romans used statues to remind the empire's largely illiterate population of the emperor's power. Although the Roman military under

Petronius Gaius Petronius Arbiter"Gaius Petronius Arbiter"
The sculpture was buried beneath a monumental stairway that led to an altar of

victory The term victory (from Latin ''victoria'') originally applied to warfare, and denotes success achieved in personal Duel, combat, after military operations in general or, by extension, in any competition. Success in a military campaign constitu ...

. The placing of the Emperor's head below the shrine's steps was designed to symbolically denigrate the reputation of Augustus in the eyes of the Meroitic aristocracy and Kushite queen

."Episode 35: Head of Augustus"
''A History of the World'', BBC Radio 4. Episode Transcript. Retrieved 21 July 2014. M292 temple fresco

The wall paintings of temple M292 may support this hypothesis. Although the frescoes of temple M292 now are faded completely, the scene can be reconstructed based on Garstang’s German assistant Shliephack’s series of watercolor drawings. On the east wall were two enthroned figures, of which the footstool depicted with a number of bound prisoners of foreign race. This may indicate that this building used to serve as a victory shrine. The earliest evidence of a foot graffiti proves that the Meroitic temple served throughout history as a pilgrimage center. The fact that these temples attract visitors indicates that everyone who enters the temple is welcome to step on Augustus’ head buried under the doorstep, symbolizing Meroe’s triumph over the emperor.

Other theories

There are several other theories regarding the origins of the Meroë Head. One suggested scenario states that the statue from which the head originates was given to the Meroites as a gift from Gallus. This, however, is quite unlikely because Gallus was more keen to place portraiture of himself in Egypt rather than that of Augustus. A second scenario states that the head once belonged to a statue located in the Roman fort, Qasr Ibrim. A specific podium in the fort has been pointed out as the potential spot where the statue once stood. This theory has since been disproved due to radio carbon dating and architectural grounds suggesting the podium is from the Ptolemaic period.

Design

Flickr - Nic's events - British Museum with Cory and Mary, 6 Sep 2007 - 301

The Meroë Head is larger than life-size and mimics

Greek art Greek art began in the Cycladic and Minoan civilization, and gave birth to Western classical art in the subsequent Geometric, Archaic and Classical periods (with further developments during the Hellenistic Period). It absorbed influences of ...

by portraying Augustus with classical proportions; it was clearly designed to idealize and flatter the Emperor. This was the case for most Augustan portraiture, especially the earliest, which evoked both youthfulness and the long-admired Grecian techniques of depicting young men. Made of bronze, the eyes are inset with glass pupils and

calcite Calcite is a Carbonate minerals, carbonate mineral and the most stable Polymorphism (materials science), polymorph of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). It is a very common mineral, particularly as a component of limestone. Calcite defines hardness 3 on ...

irises. It is the preservation of the eyes (which are frequently lost in ancient bronze statues) which makes this statue so startlingly realistic. The emperor's head turns to his right and gazes powerfully into the distance. His hair falls onto his brow in waves that are typical of Augustus's portraits. The three locks of hair consisting of two parted at the center and a third on the right approximate those of

Prima Porta Prima Porta is the 58th ''zona'' of Rome, identified by the initials Z. LVIII. The name Prima Porta (First Door) came from an arch of the aqueduct that brought water to the Villa of Livia, which formed over Via Flaminia a sort of gateway which tra ...

type. The British Museum has several other notable bronze heads of Roman Emperors including an image of

Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54) was the fourth Roman emperor, ruling from AD 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Claudius was born to Nero Claudius Drusus, Drusu ...

. The heads are thought to have been made locally but based on moulds created in Rome.

BBC series

The Meroë Head was the 35th object in ''

A History of the World in 100 Objects ''A History of the World in 100 Objects'' was a joint project of BBC Radio 4 and the British Museum, consisting of a 100-part radio series written and presented by British Museum director Neil MacGregor. In 15-minute presentations broadcast on ...

'', a

BBC Radio 4 BBC Radio 4 is a British national radio station owned and operated by the BBC that replaced the BBC Home Service in 1967. It broadcasts a wide variety of spoken-word programmes, including news, drama, comedy, science and history from the BBC' ...

series first broadcast in 2010, which traces the story of human civilization through 100 iconic objects chosen from the collection of the

British Museum The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is among the largest and most comprehensive in existence. It docum ...

.Meroë Head
BBC Radio 4. Retrieved 21 July 2014.