Mercurino Arborio, marchese di Gattinara (10 June 1465 – 5 June 1530), was an
Italian
Italian(s) may refer to:
* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries
** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom
** Italian language, a Romance language
*** Regional Ita ...
statesman and jurist best known as the chancellor of the
Holy Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans ( la, Imperator Romanorum, german: Kaiser der Römer) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period ( la, Imperat ...
Charles V Charles V may refer to:
* Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558)
* Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain
* Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise
* Charles V, Duke of Lorraine (1643–1690)
* Infan ...
. He was made
cardinal
Cardinal or The Cardinal may refer to:
Animals
* Cardinal (bird) or Cardinalidae, a family of North and South American birds
**''Cardinalis'', genus of cardinal in the family Cardinalidae
**''Cardinalis cardinalis'', or northern cardinal, the ...
of the
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
for
San Giovanni a Porta Latina
San Giovanni a Porta Latina (Italian: "Saint John Before the Latin Gate") is a Basilica church in Rome, Italy, near the Porta Latina (on the Via Latina) of the Aurelian Wall.
History
According to Tertullian, as quoted by Saint Jerome, in the y ...
in 1529.
Biography
He was born in
Gattinara
Gattinara ( pms, Gatinera) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Province of Vercelli in the Italian region of Piedmont, located about northeast of Turin and about north of Vercelli. As of December 31, 2004, it had a population of 8,506 and an ...
, near
Vercelli
Vercelli (; pms, Vërsèj ), is a city and ''comune'' of 46,552 inhabitants (January 1, 2017) in the Province of Vercelli, Piedmont, northern Italy. One of the oldest urban sites in northern Italy, it was founded, according to most historians, ...
, modern
Piedmont
it, Piemontese
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 =
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographics1_title1 =
, demographics1_info1 =
, demographics1_title2 ...
. Mercurino Gattinara initially served as the legal advisor to Margaret of Austria in
Savoy
Savoy (; frp, Savouè ; french: Savoie ) is a cultural-historical region in the Western Alps.
Situated on the cultural boundary between Occitania and Piedmont, the area extends from Lake Geneva in the north to the Dauphiné in the south.
Savo ...
. She considered him as chief amongst her various counsellors.
Mercurino Gattinara is however mostly famous for having served as Emperor
Charles V Charles V may refer to:
* Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558)
* Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain
* Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise
* Charles V, Duke of Lorraine (1643–1690)
* Infan ...
's “Grand Chancellor of all the realms and kingdoms of the king.” Upon the death of Charles' counsellor
Chièvres
Chièvres (; pcd, Chieve) is a city and municipality of Wallonia located in the province of Hainaut, Belgium.
On January 1, 2018, Chièvres had a total population of 6,899. The total area is 46.91 km² which gives a population density of 15 ...
, Gattinara would become the king's most influential advisor. He was a Roman Catholic, humanist,
Erasmian
Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (; ; English: Erasmus of Rotterdam or Erasmus;''Erasmus'' was his baptismal name, given after St. Erasmus of Formiae. ''Desiderius'' was an adopted additional name, which he used from 1496. The ''Roterodamus'' wa ...
, jurist and scholar—at the same time
idealist
In philosophy, the term idealism identifies and describes metaphysical perspectives which assert that reality is indistinguishable and inseparable from perception and understanding; that reality is a mental construct closely connected to ide ...
in his goals, and
realist in his tactics. He was a scholar of
jurisprudence
Jurisprudence, or legal theory, is the theoretical study of the propriety of law. Scholars of jurisprudence seek to explain the nature of law in its most general form and they also seek to achieve a deeper understanding of legal reasoning a ...
, the classic theory of the
state
State may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media Literature
* ''State Magazine'', a monthly magazine published by the U.S. Department of State
* ''The State'' (newspaper), a daily newspaper in Columbia, South Carolina, United States
* ''Our S ...
, and the Christian doctrine of duty. Gattinara would guide Charles away from both his roots in dynastic
Burgundy
Burgundy (; french: link=no, Bourgogne ) is a historical territory and former administrative region and province of east-central France. The province was once home to the Dukes of Burgundy from the early 11th until the late 15th century. The c ...
, and from the prevailing
secular
Secularity, also the secular or secularness (from Latin ''saeculum'', "worldly" or "of a generation"), is the state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion. Anything that does not have an explicit reference to religion, either negativ ...
political theory of Spain at the time, toward a Christian humanist conception of Empire. His ideas of the primacy of the Empire in Europe were in direct contradiction with the growing trend toward the theory of the
nation state
A nation state is a political unit where the state and nation are congruent. It is a more precise concept than "country", since a country does not need to have a predominant ethnic group.
A nation, in the sense of a common ethnicity, may inc ...
.
In his capacity as Chancellor, he urged Charles V to create a
dynastic
A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family,''Oxford English Dictionary'', "dynasty, ''n''." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1897. usually in the context of a monarchical system, but sometimes also appearing in republics. A d ...
empire
An empire is a "political unit" made up of several territories and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the empire (sometimes referred to as the metropole) ex ...
with the object of establishing global rule (''"Dominium Mundi"''). Gattinara in his policy advice and personal writings argued for Christian imperialism, based on a united
Christendom
Christendom historically refers to the Christian states, Christian-majority countries and the countries in which Christianity dominates, prevails,SeMerriam-Webster.com : dictionary, "Christendom"/ref> or is culturally or historically intertwine ...
, which would then combat or convert the
Protestant
Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
s, the
Turks
Turk or Turks may refer to:
Communities and ethnic groups
* Turkic peoples, a collection of ethnic groups who speak Turkic languages
* Turkish people, or the Turks, a Turkic ethnic group and nation
* Turkish citizen, a citizen of the Republic o ...
, and the
infidel
An infidel (literally "unfaithful") is a person accused of disbelief in the central tenets of one's own religion, such as members of another religion, or the irreligious.
Infidel is an ecclesiastical term in Christianity around which the Church ...
s of the
New World
The term ''New World'' is often used to mean the majority of Earth's Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 3 ...
. His theory attempted to balance the solidarity of Christian nations, with the requirements of conquest for the establishment of one world empire.
Gattinara was instrumental in shifting Charles V's policy vision from that of a regional dynastic
monarch
A monarch is a head of stateWebster's II New College DictionarMonarch Houghton Mifflin. Boston. 2001. p. 707. Life tenure, for life or until abdication, and therefore the head of state of a monarchy. A monarch may exercise the highest authority ...
to an empire-builder. Doubtless due in large part to Gattinara's counsel, the
Habsburg Empire
The Habsburg monarchy (german: Habsburgermonarchie, ), also known as the Danubian monarchy (german: Donaumonarchie, ), or Habsburg Empire (german: Habsburgerreich, ), was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and other polities ...
would reach its territorial height under Charles V, although it would begin to show signs of decay at the end of his reign, most importantly with the independence granted to the economically thriving but tax-averse
Low Countries
The term Low Countries, also known as the Low Lands ( nl, de Lage Landen, french: les Pays-Bas, lb, déi Niddereg Lännereien) and historically called the Netherlands ( nl, de Nederlanden), Flanders, or Belgica, is a coastal lowland region in N ...
.
Goals
After Charles's election to the throne, Gattinara wrote to him:
In the conclusion to this letter, Gattinara reiterated his belief that the true purpose of monarchy was to unite all people in the service of God.
During a review for the purpose of administrative reform, Gattinara advised Charles, in a section of the report entitled “Reverence toward God” on issues such as: whether
Moors
The term Moor, derived from the ancient Mauri, is an exonym first used by Christian Europeans to designate the Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Malta during the Middle Ages.
Moors are not a distinct or ...
and Infidels should be tolerated in his lands; whether the inhabitants of the
West Indian islands and the mainland were to be converted to Christianity; and whether the
Inquisition
The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy, conducting trials of suspected heretics. Studies of the records have found that the overwhelming majority of sentences consisted of penances, ...
should be reformed.
Another goal espoused by Gattinara was to unite Christendom against the Turk, as well as against the
Lutheran
Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched th ...
heresy. There was little practical basis for achieving such an understanding between the European powers, however.
Gattinara's own summation of his views included the final goal of laying the foundations for a policy that was truly imperial, leading to a general war on the infidel and
heretic
Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, in particular the accepted beliefs of a church or religious organization. The term is usually used in reference to violations of important religi ...
. His first objective was the Emperor's voyage to
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
as soon as the fleet was ready. Gattinara concealed the reason for expanding the fleet by reference to the troubles in
Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
.
At every fresh opportunity, Gattinara was for “taking time by the
forelock
The forelock or foretop is a part of a horse's mane, that grows from the animal's poll and falls forward between the ears and onto the forehead. Some breeds, particularly pony breeds, have a naturally thick forelock, while other breeds, such as ...
” and establishing the power of Charles V in Italy without more delay. This would function as a permanent guarantee of peace, not only on the
peninsula
A peninsula (; ) is a landform that extends from a mainland and is surrounded by water on most, but not all of its borders. A peninsula is also sometimes defined as a piece of land bordered by water on three of its sides. Peninsulas exist on all ...
but in all Europe. Gattinara's views were rooted in
Dante
Dante Alighieri (; – 14 September 1321), probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and often referred to as Dante (, ), was an Italian poet, writer and philosopher. His ''Divine Comedy'', originally called (modern Italian: '' ...
, despite having to face many practical setbacks. He faced deep-seated opposition to the imperial council, and Gattinara began to acknowledge that many were against his plan. Many Spaniards suspected Gattinara of having interests in Italy (as he was originally from Piedmont), as so his motives were questioned, and he was even threatened.
Gattinara held Dante's dream of universal monarchy as the ultimate goal of Charles V's rule, united both Christendom and eventually the world. These ideas were in line with some of Charles's other advisors. Imperial
ambassador
An ambassador is an official envoy, especially a high-ranking diplomat who represents a state and is usually accredited to another sovereign state or to an international organization as the resident representative of their own government or sov ...
at
Henry VIII
Henry VIII (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is best known for his six marriages, and for his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. His disa ...
’s court,
M. Louis de Praet, wrote to Charles:
Charles’s secretary,
Alfonso de Valdés
Alfonso de Valdés (; c. 1490 – October 1532) was a Spanish humanist, who worked at the chancellery of the Emperor Charles V. He was the twin brother of Juan de Valdés.
Alfonso de Valdés was born c. 1490 in Cuenca, Castile, Spain. His talent ...
, a humanist and Erasmian like Gattinara, would write to Charles after the
victory of Pavia (a defeat for the French, including the capture of their king
François I
Francis I (french: François Ier; frm, Francoys; 12 September 1494 – 31 March 1547) was King of France from 1515 until his death in 1547. He was the son of Charles, Count of Angoulême, and Louise of Savoy. He succeeded his first cousin once ...
):
The Spanish missionary spirit is here wedded with Dante’s
theocratic
Theocracy is a form of government in which one or more deities are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries who manage the government's daily affairs.
Etymology
The word theocracy originates fro ...
ideal and expresses the high expectations of the humanist Italians and Spaniards surrounding Charles. The Emperor was seen as the reviver of the
Roman universal Monarchy who could put an end to the feudal and dynastic conflicts, and establish a
democratic imperium. Charles' more limited goals of ordering his empire within a ''Respublica Christiana'' (a united Europe) was disappointing to his advisors seeking world-dominion, especially so to Gattinara, the aspirant to “world-empire.”
Policies
Just as Gattinara is noted for his
universalist idealism
In philosophy, the term idealism identifies and describes metaphysical perspectives which assert that reality is indistinguishable and inseparable from perception and understanding; that reality is a mental construct closely connected to ide ...
, he is also recognized as adept in the practice of ''
realpolitik
''Realpolitik'' (; ) refers to enacting or engaging in diplomatic or political policies based primarily on considerations of given circumstances and factors, rather than strictly binding itself to explicit ideological notions or moral and ethical ...
''.
Taking over from Charles V's advisor
Carlos de Chièvres, Gattinara shifted the policy outlook of his king. Chièvres had advocated protecting the
Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
through understandings with France and England, attempting to avoid war with France especially. Gattinara aimed at broadening Charles from a narrow Burgundian/Spanish outlook toward a wide imperial vision. At the center of his imperial policy was Italy:
Milan
Milan ( , , Lombard: ; it, Milano ) is a city in northern Italy, capital of Lombardy, and the second-most populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of about 1.4 million, while its metropolitan city h ...
was the vital link between the
Habsburg
The House of Habsburg (), alternatively spelled Hapsburg in Englishgerman: Haus Habsburg, ; es, Casa de Habsburgo; hu, Habsburg család, it, Casa di Asburgo, nl, Huis van Habsburg, pl, dom Habsburgów, pt, Casa de Habsburgo, la, Domus Hab ...
holdings of Spain/
Franche-Comté
Franche-Comté (, ; ; Frainc-Comtou: ''Fraintche-Comtè''; frp, Franche-Comtât; also german: Freigrafschaft; es, Franco Condado; all ) is a cultural and historical region of eastern France. It is composed of the modern departments of Doubs, ...
and
Tyrol
Tyrol (; historically the Tyrole; de-AT, Tirol ; it, Tirolo) is a historical region in the Alps - in Northern Italy and western Austria. The area was historically the core of the County of Tyrol, part of the Holy Roman Empire, Austrian Emp ...
. By the last months of 1521, Gattinara had succeeded in shifting the war with France from
Navarre
Navarre (; es, Navarra ; eu, Nafarroa ), officially the Chartered Community of Navarre ( es, Comunidad Foral de Navarra, links=no ; eu, Nafarroako Foru Komunitatea, links=no ), is a foral autonomous community and province in northern Spain, ...
to Italy. His imperial strategy had two conditions for success: domination of Italy, and
alliance
An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an alliance are called ...
with Rome.
Gattinara was the source of Charles's shift in policy toward Italy—no other cabinet member pushed for these policies. A year previous to Gattinara's appointment, the English ambassador Tunstal had remarked on Gattinara's preoccupation with Italy. Gattinara had drawn up advance drafts of war plans against Italy, in which he stresses that since God called Charles to be the first prince of Christendom it was fitting that he turns his attention to Italy, saying that anyone who counselled Charles against pursuing Italy in lieu of interest elsewhere was prescribing the king's ruin, shame and blame. Gattinara emphasized the low cost of an Italian campaign, and the necessary troop
mobilization
Mobilization is the act of assembling and readying military troops and supplies for war. The word ''mobilization'' was first used in a military context in the 1850s to describe the preparation of the Prussian Army. Mobilization theories and ...
necessary for overwhelming force.
In deciding whether or not to advise Charles V to go to war against France in northern Italy, Gattinara constructed an allegory posing the
seven deadly sins
The seven deadly sins, also known as the capital vices or cardinal sins, is a grouping and classification of vices within Christian teachings. Although they are not directly mentioned in the Bible, there are parallels with the seven things ...
against the
ten commandments
The Ten Commandments (Biblical Hebrew עשרת הדברים \ עֲשֶׂרֶת הַדְּבָרִים, ''aséret ha-dvarím'', lit. The Decalogue, The Ten Words, cf. Mishnaic Hebrew עשרת הדיברות \ עֲשֶׂרֶת הַדִּבְ ...
—seven causes for avoiding war, and ten arguments in favour. Against, the reasons were all quite practical: an attack would place a great stake on a single
strategy
Strategy (from Greek στρατηγία ''stratēgia'', "art of troop leader; office of general, command, generalship") is a general plan to achieve one or more long-term or overall goals under conditions of uncertainty. In the sense of the "art ...
with an uncertain method of solution; there was not enough money in the
treasury
A treasury is either
*A government department related to finance and taxation, a finance ministry.
*A place or location where treasure, such as currency or precious items are kept. These can be state or royal property, church treasure or in p ...
; negotiations with other Italian states were uncertain; the
Swiss
Swiss may refer to:
* the adjectival form of Switzerland
* Swiss people
Places
* Swiss, Missouri
* Swiss, North Carolina
*Swiss, West Virginia
* Swiss, Wisconsin
Other uses
*Swiss-system tournament, in various games and sports
*Swiss Internation ...
might ally themselves with France, and the area would soon be fraught with danger from the impending winter. However, Gattinara argued that the war was justified by Charles V's bond to honour the
Pope
The pope ( la, papa, from el, πάππας, translit=pappas, 'father'), also known as supreme pontiff ( or ), Roman pontiff () or sovereign pontiff, is the bishop of Rome (or historically the patriarch of Rome), head of the worldwide Cathol ...
, whom he needed as an ally. Clearly, God was on Charles's side, and to let France escape a fight would be to tempt
fate
Destiny, sometimes referred to as fate (from Latin ''fatum'' "decree, prediction, destiny, fate"), is a predetermined course of events. It may be conceived as a predetermined future, whether in general or of an individual.
Fate
Although often ...
—he would not have the chance, as resources would not be mobilized so easily next time. Additionally, with the army mobilized, it would not look good to call it off at the eleventh hour. Gattinara saw to it that his ten commandments won out over the seven deadly sins.
Gattinara was not an idealist when it came to policy. The
Treaty of Madrid was forced upon Francis I of France by Charles after Francis was captured. The treaty spoke in
romantic
Romantic may refer to:
Genres and eras
* The Romantic era, an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement of the 18th and 19th centuries
** Romantic music, of that era
** Romantic poetry, of that era
** Romanticism in science, of that e ...
hyperbole
Hyperbole (; adj. hyperbolic ) is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. In rhetoric, it is also sometimes known as auxesis (literally 'growth'). In poetry and oratory, it emphasizes, evokes strong feelings, and ...
and ended with an
oath
Traditionally an oath (from Anglo-Saxon ', also called plight) is either a statement of fact or a promise taken by a sacrality as a sign of verity. A common legal substitute for those who conscientiously object to making sacred oaths is to ...
for both rulers to undertake a
crusade
The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were i ...
together. While François signed the treaty under duress, Gattinara refused to affix the imperial seal to the document, because of his sense of ''realpolitik''. François would subsequently break the terms of the treaty, which had been to renounce claims in Italy, surrender Burgundy, and abandon
suzerainty
Suzerainty () is the rights and obligations of a person, state or other polity who controls the foreign policy and relations of a tributary state, while allowing the tributary state to have internal autonomy. While the subordinate party is cal ...
over
Flanders
Flanders (, ; Dutch: ''Vlaanderen'' ) is the Flemish-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, ...
and
Artois
Artois ( ; ; nl, Artesië; English adjective: ''Artesian'') is a region of northern France. Its territory covers an area of about 4,000 km2 and it has a population of about one million. Its principal cities are Arras (Dutch: ''Atrecht'') ...
.
See also
*
Nicolas Perrenot de Granvelle
Nicolas Perrenot de Granvelle (1486–1550) was a Franc-Comtois politician who served as a close trusted adviser to Emperor Charles V. He was made suzerain of the imperial city of Besançon and held an influential position in the Netherlands. Fro ...
References
*Alvarez, Manuel Fernandez. ''Charles V: Elected emperor and hereditary ruler.'' Thames and Hudson, London: 1975.
*Boone, Rebecca Ard. ''Mercurino di Gattinara and the Creation of the Spanish Empire''. Pickering and Chatto, London: 2014.
*Brandi, Karl. trans.
C.V. Wedgwood
Dame Cicely Veronica Wedgwood, (20 July 1910 – 9 March 1997) was an English historian who published under the name C. V. Wedgwood. Specializing in the history of 17th-century England and continental Europe, her biographies and narrative hist ...
. ''The Emperor Charles V: The Growth and Destiny of a Man and of a World-Empire.'' Humanities Press, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: 1980.
*Habsburg, Otto von. trans. Michael Ross. ''Charles V.'' Praeger Publishers, Washington: 1970.
*Headley, John M. ''The emperor and his chancellor: a study of the imperial chancellery under Gattinara''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
*Schwarzenfeld. Gertrude von. ''Charles V: Father of Europe.'' Hollis & Carter, London: 1957.
*Headley, John, ''The emperor and his chancellor: a study of the imperial chancellery under Gattinara'', New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
*Rivero Rodríguez, Manuel, ''Gattinara: Carlos V y el sueño del Imperio'', Madrid: Sílex, 2005.
*Rivero Rodríguez, Manuel, «Memoria, escritura y Estado: la autobiografía de Mercurino Arborio di Gattinara, Gran canciller de Carlos V», en Martínez Millán, José (coord.), ''Carlos V y la quiebra del humanismo político en Europa (1530-1558)'', Madrid: Sociedad Estatal para la Conmemoración de los Centenarios de Felipe II y Carlos V, volumen 1, 2000, págs. 199-224.
*Rivero Rodríguez, Manuel, La Corona de Aragón, metáfora de la Monarquía de Carlos V: Gattinara y sus ideas sobre el gobierno (1519-1520), en García García, Bernardo José (coord.), ''El Imperio de Carlos V: procesos de agregación y conflictos'', Madrid: Fundación Carlos de Amberes, 2000, págs. 97-110.
*Boone, Rebecca, ''Mercurino di Gattinara and the creation of the Spanish Empire'', London, Vermont: Pickering & Chatto, 2014.
*Boone, Rebecca, «Empire and Medieval Simulachrum. A political project of Mercurino Arborio di Gattinara, Gran Chancellor of Charles V», en ''Sixteenth Century Journal'', 4 (2011), págs. 1027-1049.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gattinara, Mercurino
1465 births
1530 deaths
People from Gattinara
16th-century people of the Holy Roman Empire
16th-century Italian politicians
16th-century Italian cardinals
Italian Renaissance humanists
Chancellors (government)