Vitamin K
2 or menaquinone (MK) () is one of three types of
vitamin K
Vitamin K refers to structurally similar, fat-soluble vitamers found in foods and marketed as dietary supplements. The human body requires vitamin K for post-synthesis modification of certain proteins that are required for blood coagulation ...
, the other two being vitamin K
1 (
phylloquinone
Phytomenadione, also known as vitamin K1 or phylloquinone, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
As a supplement it is used to treat certain bleedin ...
) and K
3 (
menadione
Menadione is a natural organic compound with the formula C6H4(CO)2C2H(CH3). It is an analog of 1,4-naphthoquinone with a methyl group in the 2-position. It is sometimes called vitamin K3. Use is allowed as a nutritional supplement in animal feed ...
). K
2 is both a tissue and
bacteria
Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were among ...
l product (derived from vitamin K
1 in both cases) and is usually found in animal products or fermented foods.
The number ''n'' of
isoprenyl units in their side chain differs and ranges from 4 to 13, hence Vitamin K
2 consists of various forms. It is indicated as a suffix (-n), e. g. MK-7 or MK-9. The most common in the human diet is the short-chain, water-soluble
menatetrenone (MK-4), which is usually produced by tissue and/or bacterial conversion of vitamin K
1, and is commonly found in animal products. It is known that production of MK-4 from dietary plant vitamin K
1 can be accomplished by animal tissues alone, as it proceeds in germ-free rodents.
However, at least one published study concluded that "MK-4 present in food does not contribute to the vitamin K status as measured by serum vitamin K levels. MK-7, however significantly increases serum MK-7 levels and therefore may be of particular importance for extrahepatic tissues."
Long-chain menaquinones (longer than MK-4) include MK-7, MK-8 and MK-9 and are more predominant in fermented foods such as
natto. Longer-chain menaquinones (MK-10 to MK-13) are produced by
anaerobic
Anaerobic means "living, active, occurring, or existing in the absence of free oxygen", as opposed to aerobic which means "living, active, or occurring only in the presence of oxygen." Anaerobic may also refer to:
* Anaerobic adhesive, a bonding a ...
bacteria in the
colon, but they are not well absorbed at this level and have little physiological impact.
When there are no isoprenyl side chain units, the remaining molecule is
vitamin K3. This can only be manufactured synthetically, and is used in
animal feed
Animal feed is food given to domestic animals, especially livestock, in the course of animal husbandry. There are two basic types: fodder and forage. Used alone, the word ''feed'' more often refers to fodder. Animal feed is an important input to ...
. It was formerly given to
premature infants, but due to inadvertent toxicity in the form of
hemolytic anemia
Hemolytic anemia or haemolytic anaemia is a form of anemia due to hemolysis, the abnormal breakdown of red blood cells (RBCs), either in the blood vessels (intravascular hemolysis) or elsewhere in the human body (extravascular). This most commonly ...
and
jaundice
Jaundice, also known as icterus, is a yellowish or greenish pigmentation of the skin and sclera due to high bilirubin levels. Jaundice in adults is typically a sign indicating the presence of underlying diseases involving abnormal heme meta ...
, it is no longer used for this purpose.
Description
Vitamin K
2, the main storage form in animals, has several subtypes, which differ in
isoprenoid
The terpenoids, also known as isoprenoids, are a class of naturally occurring organic chemicals derived from the 5-carbon compound isoprene and its derivatives called terpenes, diterpenes, etc. While sometimes used interchangeably with "terpenes", ...
chain length. These vitamin K
2 homologues are called menaquinones, and are characterized by the number of isoprenoid residues in their side chains. Menaquinones are abbreviated MK-''n'', where M stands for menaquinone, the K stands for vitamin K, and the ''n'' represents the number of isoprenoid side chain residues. For example, menaquinone-4 (abbreviated MK-4) has four isoprene residues in its side chain. Menaquinone-4 (also known as
menatetrenone from its four isoprene residues) is the most common type of vitamin K
2 in animal products since MK-4 is normally synthesized from
vitamin K1 in certain animal tissues (arterial walls, pancreas, and testes) by replacement of the phytyl tail with an unsaturated geranylgeranyl tail containing four
isoprene
Isoprene, or 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene, is a common volatile organic compound with the formula CH2=C(CH3)−CH=CH2. In its pure form it is a colorless volatile liquid. Isoprene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon. It is produced by many plants and animals ...
units, thus yielding menaquinone-4 which is Water Soluble in nature. This homolog of vitamin K
2 may have enzyme functions distinct from those of vitamin K
1.
MK-7 and other long-chain menaquinones are different from MK-4 in that they are not produced by human tissue. MK-7 may be converted from phylloquinone (K
1) in the colon by ''
Escherichia coli
''Escherichia coli'' (),Wells, J. C. (2000) Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Harlow ngland Pearson Education Ltd. also known as ''E. coli'' (), is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacterium of the genus ''Escher ...
''
bacteria
Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were among ...
. However, these menaquinones synthesized by bacteria in the gut appear to contribute minimally to overall vitamin K status. MK-4 and MK-7 are both found in the United States in dietary supplements for bone health.
All K vitamins are similar in structure: they share a "
quinone
The quinones are a class of organic compounds that are formally "derived from aromatic compounds uch as benzene or naphthalene
Uch ( pa, ;
ur, ), frequently referred to as Uch Sharīf ( pa, ;
ur, ; ''"Noble Uch"''), is a historic city in the southern part of Pakistan's Punjab province. Uch may have been founded as Alexandria on the Indus, a town founded by Alexand ...
by conversion of an even number of –CH= groups into –C(=O)– groups with any necessary rearrangement of double ...
" ring, but differ in the length and degree of saturation of the carbon tail and the number of repeating
isoprene
Isoprene, or 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene, is a common volatile organic compound with the formula CH2=C(CH3)−CH=CH2. In its pure form it is a colorless volatile liquid. Isoprene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon. It is produced by many plants and animals ...
units in the "side chain". The number of repeating units is indicated in the name of the particular menaquinone (e.g., MK-4 means that four isoprene units are repeated in the carbon tail). The chain length influences lipid solubility and thus transport to different target tissues.
Mechanism of action
The
mechanism of action
In pharmacology, the term mechanism of action (MOA) refers to the specific biochemical interaction through which a drug substance produces its pharmacological effect. A mechanism of action usually includes mention of the specific molecular targe ...
of vitamin K
2 is similar to vitamin K
1. K vitamins were first recognized as a factor required for coagulation, but the functions performed by this vitamin group were revealed to be much more complex. K vitamins play an essential role as cofactor for the enzyme γ-glutamyl carboxylase, which is involved in vitamin K-dependent carboxylation of the
gla domain
Vitamin K-dependent carboxylation/gamma-carboxyglutamic (GLA) domain is a protein domain that contains post-translational modifications of many glutamate residues by vitamin K-dependent carboxylation to form γ-carboxyglutamate (Gla). Proteins wit ...
in "Gla proteins" (i.e., in conversion of peptide-bound
glutamic acid
Glutamic acid (symbol Glu or E; the ionic form is known as glutamate) is an α-amino acid that is used by almost all living beings in the biosynthesis of proteins. It is a non-essential nutrient for humans, meaning that the human body can synt ...
(Glu) to γ-carboxy glutamic acid (Gla) in these proteins).
Carboxylation
Carboxylation is a chemical reaction in which a carboxylic acid is produced by treating a substrate with carbon dioxide. The opposite reaction is decarboxylation. In chemistry, the term carbonation is sometimes used synonymously with carboxylatio ...
of these vitamin K-dependent
Gla-proteins, besides being essential for the function of the protein, is also an important vitamin recovery mechanism since it serves as a recycling pathway to recover vitamin K from its epoxide metabolite (KO) for reuse in carboxylation.
Several human Gla-containing proteins synthesized in several different types of tissues have been discovered:
* Coagulation factors (
II,
VII VII or vii may refer to: the Roman numeral 7
Art and entertainment
* The Vii, a video game console
* vii, leading-tone triad, see diminished triad
* ''VII'' (Blitzen Trapper album)
* ''VII'' (Just-Ice album)
* ''VII'' (Teyana Taylor album)
* ...
,
IX,
X), as well as anticoagulation proteins (
C,
S,
Z). These Gla-proteins are synthesized in the liver and play an important role in blood homeostasis.
*
Osteocalcin
Osteocalcin, also known as bone gamma-carboxyglutamic acid-containing protein (BGLAP), is a small (49-amino-acid) noncollagenous protein hormone found in bone and dentin, first identified as a calcium-binding protein.
Because osteocalcin has gl ...
. This non-collagenous protein is secreted by
osteoblasts
Osteoblasts (from the Greek language, Greek combining forms for "bone", ὀστέο-, ''osteo-'' and βλαστάνω, ''blastanō'' "germinate") are cell (biology), cells with a single Cell nucleus, nucleus that synthesize bone. However, in the p ...
and plays an essential role in the formation of mineral in bone.
*
Matrix gla protein
Matrix Gla protein (MGP) is member of a family of vitamin K2 dependent, Gla-containing proteins. MGP has a high affinity binding to calcium ions, similar to other Gla-containing proteins. The protein acts as an inhibitor of vascular mineralizat ...
(MGP). This calcification inhibitory protein is found in numerous body tissues, but its role is most pronounced in cartilage and in arterial vessel walls.
*
Growth arrest-specific protein 6 (GAS6). GAS6 is secreted by leucocytes and endothelial cells in response to injury and helps in cell survival, proliferation, migration, and adhesion.
* Proline-rich Gla-proteins (PRGP), transmembrane Gla-proteins (TMG), Gla-rich protein (GRP) and
periostin
Periostin (POSTN, PN, or osteoblast-specific factor OSF-2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''POSTN'' gene. Periostin functions as a ligand for alpha-V/beta-3 and alpha-V/beta-5 integrins to support adhesion and migration of epithel ...
. Their precise functions are still unknown.
Health effects
MK-4 or MK-7 has a protective effect on bone mineral density and reduced risk of hip, vertebral and non-vertebral fractures. These effects appear to be accentuated when combined with
vitamin D
Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble secosteroids responsible for increasing intestinal absorption of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate, and many other biological effects. In humans, the most important compounds in this group are vitamin D3 (c ...
and in the setting of
osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disorder characterized by low bone mass, micro-architectural deterioration of bone tissue leading to bone fragility, and consequent increase in fracture risk. It is the most common reason for a broken bone ...
.
Utilisation
With regard to utilisation, reports suggest that Vitamin K
2 is preferred by the extrahepatic tissues (bone, cartilage, vasculature), which may be produced as MK-4 by the animal from K
1, or it may be of bacterial origin (from MK-7, MK-9, and other MKs).
Absorption profile
Vitamin K is absorbed along with dietary fat from the small intestine and transported by
chylomicron
Chylomicrons (from the Greek χυλός, chylos, meaning ''juice'' (of plants or animals), and micron, meaning ''small particle''), also known as ultra low-density lipoproteins (ULDL), are lipoprotein particles that consist of triglycerides (85 ...
s in the circulation. Most of vitamin K
1 is carried by triacylglycerol-rich lipoproteins (TRL) and rapidly cleared by the liver; only a small amount is released into the circulation and carried by LDL and HDL. MK-4 is carried by the same lipoproteins (TRL, LDL, and HDL) and cleared fast as well. The long-chain menaquinones are absorbed in the same way as vitamin K
1 and MK-4, but are efficiently redistributed by the liver in predominantly LDL (VLDL). Since LDL has a long half life in the circulation, these menaquinones can circulate for extended times resulting in higher bioavailability for extra-hepatic tissues as compared to vitamin K
1 and MK-4. Accumulation of vitamin K in extra-hepatic tissues has direct relevance to vitamin K functions not related to hemostasis.
Dietary intake in humans
The
European Food Safety Authority
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) is the agency of the European Union (EU) that provides independent scientific advice and communicates on existing and emerging risks associated with the food chain. EFSA was established in February 2002, ...
(
EU) and the US
Institute of Medicine
The National Academy of Medicine (NAM), formerly called the Institute of Medicine (IoM) until 2015, is an American nonprofit, non-governmental organization. The National Academy of Medicine is a part of the National Academies of Sciences, E ...
, on reviewing existing evidence, have decided there is insufficient evidence to publish a
dietary reference value for vitamin K or for K
2. They have, however, published an
adequate intake
The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) is a system of nutrition recommendations from the National Academy of Medicine (NAM) of the National Academies (United States). It was introduced in 1997 in order to broaden the existing guidelines known as Reco ...
(AI) for vitamin K, but no value specifically for K
2.
Parts of the scientific literature, dating back to 1998, suggest that the AI values are based only on the hepatic requirements (i.e. related to the liver). This hypothesis is supported by the fact that Thus, complete activation of
coagulation factors
Coagulation, also known as clotting, is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a blood clot. It potentially results in hemostasis, the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, followed by repair. The mechanism o ...
is satisfied, but there does not seem to be enough vitamin K
2 for the carboxylation of
osteocalcin
Osteocalcin, also known as bone gamma-carboxyglutamic acid-containing protein (BGLAP), is a small (49-amino-acid) noncollagenous protein hormone found in bone and dentin, first identified as a calcium-binding protein.
Because osteocalcin has gl ...
in bone and
MGP in the vascular system.
There is no known toxicity associated with high doses of menaquinones (vitamin K
2). Unlike the other fat-soluble vitamins, vitamin K is not stored in any significant quantity in the
liver
The liver is a major Organ (anatomy), organ only found in vertebrates which performs many essential biological functions such as detoxification of the organism, and the Protein biosynthesis, synthesis of proteins and biochemicals necessary for ...
. All data available demonstrate that vitamin K has no adverse effects in healthy subjects. The recommendations for the daily intake of vitamin K, as issued recently by the US Institute of Medicine, also acknowledge the wide safety margin of vitamin K: "a search of the literature revealed no evidence of toxicity associated with the intake of either K
1 or K
2". Animal models involving rats, if generalisable to humans, show that MK-7 is well tolerated.
Dietary sources
Apart from animal livers, the richest dietary source of menaquinones are fermented foods (from bacteria, not molds or yeasts); sources include
cheese
Cheese is a dairy product produced in wide ranges of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, ...
s consumed in Western diets (e.g., containing MK-8 and MK-9) and fermented soybean products (e.g., in traditional ''
nattō
, spelled as natto in standard English language use, is a traditional Japanese food made from whole soybeans that have been fermented with ''Bacillus subtilis'' var. ''natto''. It is often served as a breakfast food with rice. It is served wit ...
'' consumed in Japan, containing MK-7). (Here and following it is noteworthy that most food assays measure only fully unsaturated menaquinones.)
MK-4 is synthesized by animal tissues and is found in meat, eggs, and dairy products.
Cheeses have been found to contain MK-8 at 10–20 μg per 100 g and MK-9 at 35–55 μg per 100 g.
In one report, no substantial differences in MK-4 levels were observed between wild game, free-range animals, and factory farm animals.
In addition to its animal origins, menaquinones are synthesized by bacteria during fermentation and so, as stated, are found in most fermented cheese and soybean products.
As of 2001, the richest known source of natural K
2 was
nattō
, spelled as natto in standard English language use, is a traditional Japanese food made from whole soybeans that have been fermented with ''Bacillus subtilis'' var. ''natto''. It is often served as a breakfast food with rice. It is served wit ...
fermented using the nattō strain of ''
Bacillus subtilis
''Bacillus subtilis'', known also as the hay bacillus or grass bacillus, is a Gram-positive, catalase-positive bacterium, found in soil and the gastrointestinal tract of ruminants, humans and marine sponges. As a member of the genus ''Bacillu ...
'', which is reportedly a good source of long-chain MK-7. In nattō, MK-4 is absent as a form of vitamin K, and in cheeses it is present among the vitamins K only in low proportions. As of this date, it is unknown whether ''B. subtilis'' will produce K
2 using other legumes (e.g.,
chickpeas
The chickpea or chick pea (''Cicer arietinum'') is an annual legume of the family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae. Its different types are variously known as gram" or Bengal gram, garbanzo or garbanzo bean, or Egyptian pea. Chickpea seeds are high ...
, or
lentils
The lentil (''Lens culinaris'' or ''Lens esculenta'') is an edible legume. It is an annual plant known for its lens-shaped seeds. It is about tall, and the seeds grow in pods, usually with two seeds in each. As a food crop, the largest produ ...
).
Food frequency questionnaire-derived estimates of relative intakes of Vitamins K in one northern European country suggest that for that population, about 90% of total vitamin K intakes are provided by K
1, about 7.5% by MK-5 through MK-9 and about 2.5% by MK-4; the intense smell and strong taste of nattō appear to make this soya food a less attractive source of K
2 for Western tastes.
Supplement companies sell nattō extract reportedly standardized with regards to K
2 content, in capsule form.
Analysis of foods
Notes:
* – The reported amounts in comparable milk from the USA and the Netherlands differ by more than 40 times, so these numbers should be considered suspect.
Anticoagulants
Recent studies found a clear association between long-term oral (or intravenous)
anticoagulant
Anticoagulants, commonly known as blood thinners, are chemical substances that prevent or reduce coagulation of blood, prolonging the clotting time. Some of them occur naturally in blood-eating animals such as leeches and mosquitoes, where the ...
treatment (OAC) and reduced bone quality due to reduction of active
osteocalcin
Osteocalcin, also known as bone gamma-carboxyglutamic acid-containing protein (BGLAP), is a small (49-amino-acid) noncollagenous protein hormone found in bone and dentin, first identified as a calcium-binding protein.
Because osteocalcin has gl ...
. OAC might lead to an increased incidence of fractures, reduced bone mineral density or content,
osteopenia
Osteopenia, known as "low bone mass" or "low bone density", is a condition in which bone mineral density is low. Because their bones are weaker, people with osteopenia may have a higher risk of fractures, and some people may go on to develop osteop ...
, and increased serum levels of undercarboxylated osteocalcin.
Furthermore, OAC is often linked to undesired soft-tissue calcification in both children and adults. This process has been shown to be dependent upon the action of K vitamins. Vitamin K deficiency results in undercarboxylation of MGP. Also in humans on OAC treatment, two-fold more arterial calcification was found as compared to patients not receiving vitamin K antagonists. Among consequences of anticoagulant treatment: increased aortic wall stiffness, coronary insufficiency, ischemia, and even heart failure. Arterial calcification might also contribute to systolic hypertension and ventricular hypertrophy.
Anticoagulant therapy is usually instituted to avoid life-threatening diseases, and high vitamin K intake interferes with anticoagulant effects. Patients on
warfarin
Warfarin, sold under the brand name Coumadin among others, is a medication that is used as an anticoagulant (blood thinner). It is commonly used to prevent blood clots such as deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism, and to prevent strok ...
(Coumadin) or being treated with other
vitamin K antagonist
Vitamin K antagonists (VKA) are a group of substances that reduce blood clotting by reducing the action of vitamin K. The term "vitamin K antagonist" is technically a misnomer, as the drugs do not directly antagonise the action of vitamin K in t ...
s are therefore advised not to consume diets rich in K vitamins.
In other organisms
Many bacteria synthesize menaquinones from
chorismic acid
Chorismic acid, more commonly known as its anionic form chorismate, is an important biochemical intermediate in plants and microorganisms. It is a precursor for:
* The aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine
* Indole, indole d ...
. They use it as a part of the
electron transport chain
An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of protein complexes and other molecules that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox reactions (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) and couples th ...
, playing a similar role as other quinones such as
ubiquinone
Coenzyme Q, also known as ubiquinone and marketed as CoQ10, is a coenzyme family that is ubiquitous in animals and most bacteria (hence the name ubiquinone). In humans, the most common form is coenzyme Q10 or ubiquinone-10.
It is a 1,4-benzoq ...
. Oxygen, heme, and menaquinones are needed for many species of
lactic acid bacteria
Lactobacillales are an order of gram-positive, low-GC, acid-tolerant, generally nonsporulating, nonrespiring, either rod-shaped (bacilli) or spherical (cocci) bacteria that share common metabolic and physiological characteristics. These bacte ...
to conduct respiration.
See also
*
Vitamin K
Vitamin K refers to structurally similar, fat-soluble vitamers found in foods and marketed as dietary supplements. The human body requires vitamin K for post-synthesis modification of certain proteins that are required for blood coagulation ...
*
Vitamin K1
*
Vitamin K3
References
{{vitamin
Vitamin K
Naphthoquinones
Polyenes