''Memorabilia'' (original title in grc, Ἀπομνημονεύματα, Apomnemoneumata) is a collection of
Socratic dialogue
Socratic dialogue ( grc, Σωκρατικὸς λόγος) is a genre of literary prose developed in Greece at the turn of the fourth century BC. The earliest ones are preserved in the works of Plato and Xenophon and all involve Socrates as the p ...
s by
Xenophon
Xenophon of Athens (; grc, wikt:Ξενοφῶν, Ξενοφῶν ; – probably 355 or 354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian, born in Athens. At the age of 30, Xenophon was elected commander of one of the biggest Anci ...
, a student of
Socrates
Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no te ...
. The lengthiest and most famous of
Xenophon
Xenophon of Athens (; grc, wikt:Ξενοφῶν, Ξενοφῶν ; – probably 355 or 354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian, born in Athens. At the age of 30, Xenophon was elected commander of one of the biggest Anci ...
's Socratic writings, the ''Memorabilia'' is essentially an
apologia
An apologia (Latin for apology, from Greek ἀπολογία, "speaking in defense") is a formal defense of an opinion, position or action. The term's current use, often in the context of religion, theology and philosophy, derives from Justin Mar ...
(defense) of
Socrates
Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no te ...
, differing from both Xenophon's
''Apology of Socrates to the Jury'' and
Plato's ''Apology'' mainly in that the Apologies present Socrates as defending himself before the jury, whereas the former presents Xenophon's own defense of Socrates, offering edifying examples of Socrates' conversations and activities along with occasional commentary from Xenophon.
Title
Memorabilia is also known by its Latin title ''Commentarii'' and a variety of English translations (Recollections, Memoirs, Conversations of Socrates, etc.).
Date of composition
The ''Memorabilia'' was probably completed after 371 BC, as one passage (III.5) appears to assume the military situation after the Spartan defeat at the
Battle of Leuctra
The Battle of Leuctra ( grc-gre, Λεῦκτρα, ) was a battle fought on 6 July 371 BC between the Boeotians led by the Thebans, and the Spartans along with their allies amidst the post- Corinthian War conflict. The battle took place in the vici ...
in that year.
Structure and contents
The ''Memorabilia'' contains 39 chapters broken into four books; contains 7 chapters, contains 10 chapters, contains 14 chapters, and contains 8 chapters.
The overall organization of the ''Memorabilia'' is not always easy to make out:
* Book I. After the direct defense of Socrates (I.1-I.2), the rest of consists of an account of Socrates' piety and self-control.
* Books II and III are devoted largely to showing how Socrates benefited his family, friends, and various Athenians who came to him for advice.
* Book IV turns to a more detailed account of how Socrates educated one particular student, Euthydemus. It includes an early example (possibly the earliest) of the Argument from Design (i.e. the
Teleological Argument
The teleological argument (from ; also known as physico-theological argument, argument from design, or intelligent design argument) is an argument for the existence of God or, more generally, that complex functionality in the natural world wh ...
) (IV.3, anticipated already in I.4). Chapter 4 gives a related account of
Natural Law
Natural law ( la, ius naturale, ''lex naturalis'') is a system of law based on a close observation of human nature, and based on values intrinsic to human nature that can be deduced and applied independently of positive law (the express enacte ...
.
In the lengthy first two chapters of the work, Xenophon argues that Socrates was innocent of the formal charges against him: failure to recognize the gods of Athens, introduction of new gods, and corruption of the youth. In addition to arguing that Socrates was most pious, and, as the most self-controlled of men, the least likely to corrupt the youth, Xenophon deals with informal political accusations not directly addressed in the ''Apology'' of Plato (or Xenophon's own ''Apology''). Xenophon defends Socrates against the charge that he led the youth of Athens to despise democracy as a regime, and defends Socrates' association with
Critias
Critias (; grc-gre, Κριτίας, ''Kritias''; c. 460 – 403 BC) was an ancient Athenian political figure and author. Born in Athens, Critias was the son of Callaeschrus and a first cousin of Plato's mother Perictione. He became a leading ...
, the worst of the
Thirty Tyrants who briefly ruled Athens in 404-403, and
Alcibiades
Alcibiades ( ; grc-gre, Ἀλκιβιάδης; 450 – 404 BC) was a prominent Athenian statesman, orator, and general. He was the last of the Alcmaeonidae, which fell from prominence after the Peloponnesian War. He played a major role in t ...
, the brilliant renegade democratic politician and general. It has often been argued that Xenophon is here responding not to charges in the air at time of the trial of Socrates in 399 BC, but to charges made some years later by the Athenian sophist
Polycrates
Polycrates (; grc-gre, Πολυκράτης), son of Aeaces, was the tyrant of Samos from the 540s BC to 522 BC. He had a reputation as both a fierce warrior and an enlightened tyrant.
Sources
The main source for Polycrates' life and activit ...
in his ''Accusation of Socrates''. But Polycrates' work is lost, and our sources for reconstructing it are late and unreliable. The assumption that Xenophon was responding to Polycrates point by point may be driven as much by the traditionally low esteem for Xenophon's literary powers as to any historical influence from Polycrates. The role of Polycrates is one item in the debate over whether Xenophon's treatment of Socrates reflects the historical Socrates, or is a largely fictional contribution to the literary debate about Socrates. This debate is in turn an important element in our understanding the
trial of Socrates
The trial of Socrates (399 BC) was held to determine the philosopher's guilt of two charges: '' asebeia'' ( impiety) against the pantheon of Athens, and corruption of the youth of the city-state; the accusers cited two impious acts by Socra ...
, and in particular to the debate over whether the religious terms of the official accusation against Socrates (impiety) were a cover for political animosity against him.
Xenophon devotes the rest of the ''Memorabilia'' to demonstrating how Socrates benefited his friends and a wide range of other Athenians. It thus consists of episodes, mainly rather short and none more than a few pages in length, in which Socrates engages with a variety of persons: named and unnamed companions, rival teachers, famous and less famous Athenians. A few of the interlocutors appear several times. Typically Xenophon introduces the reason why he is writing about a particular conversation, and he will also occasionally interject a remark into the narrative, or at its conclusion.
Comparison to Plato's dialogues
Xenophon's Socrates is more likely to give practical advice than to ask probing philosophical questions, and Xenophon is more interested in defending Socrates than in developing his philosophy. Where Plato's Socrates emphasizes self-knowledge, Xenophon's Socrates speaks more of self-control. Yet the ''Memorabilia'' also contains charming set-pieces (including Socrates' conversation with the glamorous courtesan (''
hetaera
Hetaira (plural hetairai (), also hetaera (plural hetaerae ), ( grc, ἑταίρα, "companion", pl. , la, hetaera, pl. ) was a type of prostitute in ancient Greece, who served as an artist, entertainer and conversationalist in addition to pro ...
'')
Theodote
Theodote (Greek: Θεοδότη; 780 – after 797) was the second Empress consort of Constantine VI of the Byzantine Empire. She was a member of a distinguished family of Constantinople and her brother Sergios was mentioned as an ''hypatos''. The ...
in III.11, and his sharp exchanges with two of the
Thirty Tyrants in I.2). And Xenophon likely aimed to reach a wider range of readers, many of whom may have welcomed the more down-to-earth advice his Socrates gives.
Influence
Xenophon's portrayal of Socrates was influential in antiquity, and helps us understand how various schools of ancient thought made use of Socrates. The self-control of Xenophon's Socrates is in keeping with his role in inspiring ancient
cynicism
Cynic or Cynicism may refer to:
Modes of thought
* Cynicism (philosophy), a school of ancient Greek philosophy
* Cynicism (contemporary), modern use of the word for distrust of others' motives
Books
* ''The Cynic'', James Gordon Stuart Grant 1 ...
, which was traditionally said to be founded by Socrates' follower
Antisthenes
Antisthenes (; el, Ἀντισθένης; 446 366 BCE) was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Antisthenes first learned rhetoric under Gorgias before becoming an ardent disciple of Socrates. He adopted and developed the ethical side ...
. It is clear that the
Stoics
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BCE. It is a philosophy of personal virtue ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world, asserting that th ...
made considerable use of Xenophon's version of the argument from design, and their account of natural law also owed something to Socrates, if not only to Xenophon's Socrates.
Aside from Plato and Aristophanes, Xenophon is the only contemporary of Socrates whose writings on the latter are extant.
Xenophon's account of how
Heracles
Heracles ( ; grc-gre, Ἡρακλῆς, , glory/fame of Hera), born Alcaeus (, ''Alkaios'') or Alcides (, ''Alkeidēs''), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon.By his adoptive ...
had to
choose between Virtue and Vice, a story he attributes to
Prodicus
Prodicus of Ceos (; grc-gre, Πρόδικος ὁ Κεῖος, ''Pródikos ho Keios''; c. 465 BC – c. 395 BC) was a Greek philosopher, and part of the first generation of Sophists. He came to Athens as ambassador from Ceos, and became known as ...
, became a popular motif in ancient Greek and Roman culture. It became popular again in the
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...
.
Translations
* Xenophon, ''Memorabilia'', trans. Amy L. Bonnette, introd. by Christopher Bruell, Ithaca:
Cornell University Press
The Cornell University Press is the university press of Cornell University; currently housed in Sage House, the former residence of Henry William Sage. It was first established in 1869, making it the first university publishing enterprise in th ...
, The Agora Editions, 1994.
* Xenophon, "Memoirs of Socrates," in ''Conversations of Socrates,'' translated by Hugh Tredennick and Robin Waterfield, edited with new material by Robin Waterfield, pp. 53-216. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990.
he collection contains all of Xenophon's Socratic works.* Xenophon, ''Xenophon IV: Memorabilia, Oeconomicus, Symposium, Apology'', trans. by E.C. Marchant, Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
Loeb Classical Library
The Loeb Classical Library (LCL; named after James Loeb; , ) is a series of books originally published by Heinemann in London, but is currently published by Harvard University Press. The library contains important works of ancient Greek and L ...
, 1923.
ncludes ancient Greek text and English translation on facing pages.* Xenopho
''The Memorable Thoughts of Socrates''Edward Bysshe translation 1888
* Xenophon, ''Memorabilia'', trans. Henry Graham Dakyns, London: Macmillan, 1897. (In of ''The Works of Xenophon in Four Volumes''.
link* Xenophon, "The Anabasis, or Expedition of Cyrus and the Memorabilia of Socrates", translated by Rev. J.S. Watson, London: George Bell and Sons, Covent Garden, 1875.
References
* DeFilippo, J. and P. Mitsis. "Socrates and Stoic Natural Law." 252-271 in Vander Waerdt 1994 (see below).
* Dorion, Louis-André, ed. "Memorables". Paris, , Introduction and (2003); Volume 2, and III (2010); and Volume 3, 2010.
he best modern edition of the "Memorabilia", with a new edition of the text, new translation, and copious notes--in French.* Gray, Vivienne J. ''The Framing of Socrates: The Literary Interpretation of Xenophon's Memorabilia.'' Hermes Einzelschriften 79. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1998.
* Johnson, David. "Xenophon's Socrates on Justice and the Law." ''Ancient Philosophy'' 23 (2003) 255-281.
ounters Morrison, below.* Livingstone, Niall. ''A Commentary on Isocrates' Busiris''. Brill, 2001.
ejects the view that Polycrates was Xenophon's source.* McPherran, Mark. ''The Religion of Socrates''. The Penn State University Press, 1996.
ncludes a defense of Xenophon's account of Socratic religion.* Morrison, Donald. "Xenophon's Socrates on the Just and the Lawful." ''Ancient Philosophy'' 15 (1995) 329-347.
rgues that Xenophon's Socrates is a legal positivist.* Pangle, Thomas L. ''The Socratic Way of Life: Xenophon's Memorabilia.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018.
* Strauss, Leo, ''Xenophon's Socrates'', Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972.
* Vander-Waerdt, Paul, ed. ''The Socratic Movement'', Cornell University Press, 1994.
ine collection of essays from a variety of perspectives, many on Xenophon's Socrates.
External links
*
* The
Henry Graham Dakyns
Henry Graham Dakyns, often H. G. Dakyns (1838–1911), was a British translator of Ancient Greek, best known for his translations of Xenophon: the ''Cyropaedia'' and ''Hellenica'', ''The Economist'', '' Hiero'' and ''On Horsemanship''.
Life
Henry ...
br>
translationof ''The Memorabilia'' at Project Gutenberg
{{Authority control
Socratic dialogues
Works by Xenophon