Medical cannibalism is the consumption or use of the human body, dead or alive, to treat diseases. The medical trade and pharmacological use of human body parts and fluids arose from the belief that because the human body is able to heal itself, it can also help heal another human body.
This belief was shared among different groups, including ancient
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the F ...
n,
Egyptian
Egyptian describes something of, from, or related to Egypt.
Egyptian or Egyptians may refer to:
Nations and ethnic groups
* Egyptians, a national group in North Africa
** Egyptian culture, a complex and stable culture with thousands of years of ...
,
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
,
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
and
Judaic
Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic, monotheism, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots ...
cultures.
Much of medical cannibalism applied the principles of
sympathetic magic
Sympathetic magic, also known as imitative magic, is a type of magic based on imitation or correspondence.
Similarity and contagion
James George Frazer coined the term "sympathetic magic" in '' The Golden Bough'' (1889); Richard Andree, however ...
, for example that powdered blood helps bleeding, human fat helps bruising, and powdered skulls help with migraines or dizziness.
History
Egypt
Medical cannibalism may have begun in ancient Egypt with the exploitation of
mummies
A mummy is a dead human or an animal whose soft tissues and organs have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold, very low humidity, or lack of air, so that the recovered body does not decay furth ...
. There are no primary sources for the practice of medical cannibalism in
Ancient Egypt.
Europe
Medical cannibalism in Europe can be traced back to the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterr ...
in the second century AD. According to fifteenth century philosopher
Marsilio Ficino
Marsilio Ficino (; Latin name: ; 19 October 1433 – 1 October 1499) was an Italian scholar and Catholic priest who was one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance. He was an astrologer, a reviver of ...
, Romans drank the blood of slain gladiators to absorb the vitality of strong young men and suggested adopting the practice by drinking blood from the arm of young persons. Medical cannibalism in Europe reached its peak in the sixteenth century, with the practice becoming widespread in Germany, France, Italy, and England.
Most "raw materials" for the practice came from mummies that were stolen from Egyptian tombs, skulls that were taken from Irish burial sites, gravediggers who robbed and sold body parts. Medicines were created from human bones, blood, and fat and believed to treat many types of illnesses.
Tincture
A tincture is typically an extract of plant or animal material dissolved in ethanol (ethyl alcohol). Solvent concentrations of 25–60% are common, but may run as high as 90%.Groot Handboek Geneeskrachtige Planten by Geert Verhelst In chemistr ...
s were made to treat internal bleeding by soaking mummified bodies in
alcohol
Alcohol most commonly refers to:
* Alcohol (chemistry), an organic compound in which a hydroxyl group is bound to a carbon atom
* Alcohol (drug), an intoxicant found in alcoholic drinks
Alcohol may also refer to:
Chemicals
* Ethanol, one of sev ...
or vinegar.
Powdered skull was used to treat ailments of the head, and was even sometimes mixed with chocolate to treat
apoplexy
Apoplexy () is rupture of an internal organ and the accompanying symptoms. The term formerly referred to what is now called a stroke. Nowadays, health care professionals do not use the term, but instead specify the anatomic location of the bleedi ...
.
In the 1800s, Englishmen treated
epilepsy
Epilepsy is a group of non-communicable neurological disorders characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures. Epileptic seizures can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking due to abnormal electrical ...
by mixing skull with molasses.
In addition, human fat was used to treat problems of the outer body either by rubbing it directly on the skin or soaking the bandage in fat first then applying it on the wound.
As this practice became more and more common, the adaption of "like cures like" was used to determine the treatment for various ailments.
For example, parts of the head was used to treat issues relating to the head and eyes of dead people were collected and used to treat Ophthalmological issues.
Blood, specifically, soon evolved to be seen as a substantial
elixir
ELIXIR (the European life-sciences Infrastructure for biological Information) is an initiative that will allow life science laboratories across Europe to share and store their research data as part of an organised network. Its goal is to bring t ...
, especially fresh, warm human blood because it was believed to still possess the soul of the deceased. For example, it was believed that drinking the blood of a strong person or a wise person would result in increase of strength or wisdom, respectively, because once ingested, the spirit of the deceased connects with that of the consumer and lends it its power.
This belief was especially common in Germany, as well as in
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus (legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
, where
gladiator
A gladiator ( la, gladiator, "swordsman", from , "sword") was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gla ...
's blood was drunk to gain their strength. Even the poor, who could not afford other remedies, took part in this practice by taking their own cups to executions, paying the executioner a small fee, then filling their cups with the fresh blood.
The execution of criminals was seen as "killing two birds with one stone," it reduced the criminal burden and served the public good.
Europeans also adopted the what they thought was the Ancient Egyptian belief that the more valuable corpses were those of a fresh, young body, especially those that died a brutal sudden death, for it was believed that the spirit of the body would remain trapped in there for a longer period of time, and thus would have greater healing powers.
Concoctions
Although the blood was normally drunk warm and fresh for increased effectiveness, some people preferred to have it cooked.
Therefore a recipe of how to turn blood into
marmalade
Marmalade is a fruit preserve made from the juice and peel of citrus fruits boiled with sugar and water. The well-known version is made from bitter orange. It is also made from lemons, limes, grapefruits, mandarins, sweet oranges, bergamo ...
was invented.
In 1679, a Franciscan
apothecary
''Apothecary'' () is a mostly archaic term for a medical professional who formulates and dispenses '' materia medica'' (medicine) to physicians, surgeons, and patients. The modern chemist (British English) or pharmacist (British and North Ameri ...
suggested letting the blood partially dry and chopping into small pieces to allow remaining water to seep out. Then, cooking the blood into a batter, before sifting it into a jar.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth century, "man’s grease" became in high demand.
Executioners would sell the fat of the people they executed, which would then be melted and filled into vessels. Apothecaries sold it as a remedy for pain, inflammation,
rabies
Rabies is a viral disease that causes encephalitis in humans and other mammals. Early symptoms can include fever and tingling at the site of exposure. These symptoms are followed by one or more of the following symptoms: nausea, vomiting, vi ...
, joint problems, and scars. Additionally, the skin of the executed was also used for medical purposes.
Pregnant women placed that skin around their belly during childbirth because it was thought to reduce birth pains. Others placed it around their neck to prevent
thyroid problems
Thyroid disease is a medical condition that affects the function of the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is located at the front of the neck and produces thyroid hormones that travel through the blood to help regulate many other organs, meaning ...
.
Mummia, a medicine that started out in Egypt and quickly became in high demand throughout Europe within the sixteenth century, was thought to cure any ailment there was.
The black remnants in the skull and abdominal cavities were scraped out of mummies and placed in a large vase. Apothecaries mixed this mummia with herbs and wine, then prescribed it as medicine for their patients.
In Germany, around the early 1600s, a recipe for wine from flesh was invented. According to this recipe, the body of a human, specifically a young, flawless, red-head was used. Their flesh was chopped up and mixed with
aloe
''Aloe'' (; also written ''Aloë'') is a genus containing over 650 species of flowering succulent plants.WFO (2022): Aloe L. Published on the Internet;http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-4000001341. Accessed on: 06 Nov 2022 The most wid ...
and
myrrh
Myrrh (; from Semitic, but see '' § Etymology'') is a gum-resin extracted from a number of small, thorny tree species of the genus ''Commiphora''. Myrrh resin has been used throughout history as a perfume, incense and medicine. Myrrh mi ...
, then mashed and cured into a "wine."
Modern medical cannibalism
Medical cannibalism is not simply the eating, drinking and use of human body parts and fluids, but also the exploitation of the human body for medical purposes, especially without the prior consent of the person. This practice was seen, for example, in the early twentieth century, when Germans were sold mummies in medical catalogs.
Although most people do not engage in drinking of blood or usage of
essential oil
An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetheroleum, or simply as the o ...
s derived from
mummies
A mummy is a dead human or an animal whose soft tissues and organs have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold, very low humidity, or lack of air, so that the recovered body does not decay furth ...
, one way that medical cannibalism continues today is in the form of
organ transplant
Organ transplantation is a medical procedure in which an organ is removed from one body and placed in the body of a recipient, to replace a damaged or missing organ. The donor and recipient may be at the same location, or organs may be transpo ...
s. Organ trafficking became widespread because of high demand and short supply.
Organ trade or trafficking involves the purchase and sale of transplant organs from live donors.
Although this practice is prohibited in most countries, it still occurs frequently. In fact, it is estimated the approximately 10,000 transplanted organs are obtained through some form of organ trafficking annually.
One extreme case of this occurred in 2001 and 2002 when more than 100 kidney transplants were done at St. Augustine Hospital in South Africa illegally.
Another occurred in 2005, when kidneys of Chinese prisoners were sold to British patients.
Yet another example is the large scale organ trafficking system that was uncovered in India in 2002, that was valued at about $32.4 million. This system involved about 1,972 cases of illegal organ transplants, of mostly poor and migrant workers who did not receive proper care and were threatened with imprisonment if they did not comply.
References
{{Reflist
Cannibalism